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CGP Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Rod cells in the dark

A

. Sodium ions pumped out of cell using active transport, but diffuse back in through open sodium channels
. Cell membrane is depolarised
. This triggers release of neurotransmitters, which inhibit bipolar neurone

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2
Q

Rod cells in the light

A

. Light breaks apart rhodopsin into retinal and opsin
. Bleaching of rhodopsin causes sodium ion channels to close - can diffuse out, but can’t diffuse back in
. Sodium ions build up on outside of cell - cell is hyperpolarised
. Stops releasing neurotransmitters
. Bipolar neurone depolarises.

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3
Q

Define:
Synaptic divergence
Synaptic convergence
Summation

A

. When one neurone connects to many neurones to disperse information around the body
. When many neurones connect to one neurone to amplify information
. Effect of neurotransmitter released from many neurones is added together

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4
Q

Function of cerebrum

A

. Vision, learning, thinking, emotions + environment

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5
Q

Function of hypothalamus

A

Body temperature regulation

Produces hormones to control pituitary gland

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6
Q

Medulla oblongata function

A

. Breathing + heart rate

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7
Q

Cerebellum function

A

Coordinating movement + balance

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8
Q

Cerebellum function

A

Coordinating movement + balance

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9
Q

CT

A

Shows damaged + diseased parts of the brain (blood)

Blood has a lighter colour - shows extent + location of bleeding

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10
Q

MRI

A

Shows difference between normal and abnormal tissue

E.g. shows tumour size + location

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11
Q

fMRI

A

Detects blood flow
More active areas in brain require more blood flow
Detects areas where less signal is absorbed

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11
Q

fMRI

A

Detects blood flow
More active areas in brain require more blood flow
Detects areas where less signal is absorbed

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12
Q

PET

A

radioactive tracer is introduced shows which areas of brain are unusually active/inactive

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13
Q

Describe how low serotonin levels in an individual can affect the transmission of impulses in their brain

A

. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter
. (less serotonin) results in fewer depolarisations of post
synaptic membranes (1)
. threshold not achieved / less chance of action potential
being produced (in post-synaptic neurone) (1)

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14
Q

Explain how MDMA works

A

. Increases serotonin levels
. Increases serotonin levels by inhibiting reuptake of serotonin into presynaptic neurones - binds to and blocks reuptake protein on post synaptic membrane
. Also triggers release of serotonin from presynaptic neurones
. Serotonin levels stay high in synapse and cause depolarisation of postsynaptic neurones in part of brain that control mood
. Effect of MDMA is mood elevation

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15
Q

Explain how L-Dopa works

A

. Structure is very similar to Dopamine
. Absorbed by brain and converted into dopamine by dopa-decarboxylase - increasing dopamine level in brain
. Higher dopamine = more nerve impulses transmitted across synapses in parts of brain that control movement
. Sufferers of Parkinson’s disease have more control over movement.

16
Q

How does Parkinsons disease work

A

. Neurones in part of brain that control movement are destroyed
. These normally produce dopamine
. Less dopamine released into synaptic clefts, less bind to receptors on post synaptic membrane
. Fewer sodium ion channels open on post synaptic membrane, so postsynaptic cell is less likely to depolarise
. Fewer action potentials produced, causes tremors + slow movement
.

17
Q

How does depression work

A

. Low levels of serotonin neurotransmitter

. Serotonin transmits nerve impulses across synapses in parts of the brain that control mood

18
Q

Animal experiments

A

. Study effects of different environments on brain development of same species - genetically similar, so any differences in brain development will be from nurture instead of nature.
. Study effects of different genes, genetically engineer mice ot lack particular gene and raise mice with and without gene in similar environments - difference in brain development would be nature not nurture
.

19
Q

Cross cultural studies

A

. Different cultures = different environmental influences can study effects of different upbringing on brain development on children with same age but different cultures
Any differences in brain development would be nurture not nature, any similarities would be nature not nurture.

20
Q

Brain damage studies

A

Scientists compare development of a chosen function in children with and without brain damage
if characteristic still develops in children with brain damage, brain development for that characteristic is more likely to be nurture
if it doesn’t develop, brain development for that characteristic is more likely nature.

21
Q

Why should we use animals in medical research

A

. Animals are similar to humans - have led to many medical breakthroughs
. Only done when necessary
. Scientists follow strict rules
. Pain is minimised
. Currently only way to study how a drug affects the whole body
. Humans have greater right to life than animals

22
Q

Why shouldnt we test on animals

A

. Different to humans, drugs have different effects
. Experiments cause pain and distress
. Alternatives to using animals in research
. Animals have the right not to be experimented on

23
Q

Individuals who use MDMA may develop the symptoms of depression.

A

 MDMA use results in depletion of serotonin (1)
 post synaptic membrane becomes less responsive to
serotonin / loss of receptors on post synaptic membrane (1)
 serotonin levels affect mood / lack of serotonin associated
with depression (1)

24
Q

Explain why cystic fibrosis affects the rate of oxygen uptake in the lungs.

A

 { thick / sticky / viscous } mucus (1)
 (accumulation of mucus) which cannot be moved by cilia (1)
 restricting air flow through { bronchioles / bronchi } (1)
 {increases diffusion distance / reduces surface area for gas
exchange } in the alveoli (1)

25
Q

Explain why blood lactate levels increase durinng exercise

A

. Muscles release lactate due to anaerobic respiration

. Insufficient oxygen for aerobic respiration

26
Q

Role of antihypertensives.- beta-blockers, vasodilators, diuretics.

A

Beta-blockers: reduce strength of heartbeat
Vasodilators: widen blood vessels
Diuretics: reduce amount of sodium reabsorbed by blood in kidneys - less water reabsorbed, so blood volume reduced.

Reduce blood pressure + reduces heart rate. Prevent muscles in vessel walls contracting by acting on sympathetic nervous system.

+ work in different ways so can be given in combination
+ can monitor at home
- Palpitations, fainting, headaches, blood pressure falls too low.

27
Q

Role of statins

A
  • Reduce LDL cholesterol produced in liver

- muscle + join pain, digestive problems, increased diabetes risk, nausea

28
Q

Anticoagulants

A

Reduce blood clotting

  • can cause excessive bleeding if injured, osteoporosis, damage fetus
29
Q

Platelet inhibitory drugs

A

e.g. aspirin
Type of anticoagulant, stops platelets clumping together.

  • nausea, rashes, diarrhoea
30
Q

HDL

A

. Mainly protein,
. transport cholesterol to liver where its recycled/ excreted
. Reduces total blood cholesterol when level is too high

31
Q

LDL

A

. mainly lipid
. Transport cholesterol from liver to blood
. Increases total blood cholesterol when level is too low.

32
Q

What happens to lac operon when lactose is not present

A

Regulatory gene produces lac repressor, which is a transcription factor that binds to operator site when no lactose is present. Blocks transcription as RNA polymerase cannot bind to promotor

33
Q

What happens to lac operon when lactose is present

A

Binds to repressor, changing repressors shape so it cannot bind to operator site
RNA polymerase transcribes genes

34
Q

Amniocentesis

A

Sample of amniotic fluid is obtained via abdomen using a fine needle. Fluid contains fetal cells which have DNA that can be analysed

  • Has 1% chance of miscarriage
  • Results take time
35
Q

Chorionic Villus Sampling

A
  • Can be performed earlier than amniocentesis so earlier decision can be made
  • Sample of cells taken from chorionic villi, which contains fetal DNA which can be analysed
  • Procedure done via abdomen or vagina
  • Has 1-2% miscarriage - higher than amniocentesis
  • Initial results available after a few days
36
Q

Pre-implantation Genetic diagnosis

A

Carried out on embryos from IVF
Screens embryos for genetic disorders before being implanted

+ reduces having baby with genetic disorder
+ avoids issue of abortion
- can be used to find other characteristics that can lead to designer babies
- False results can provide incorrect information

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