Cellular Regulation/Cancer Flashcards
Growth that causes tissue to increase in size by enlarging each cell
Hypertrophy
Growth that causes tissue to increase in size by increasing the number of cells
Hyperplasia
Any new or continued cell growth not needed for normal development or replacement of dead and damaged tissues
Neoplasia
The feature in which each normal cell type has a distinct and recognizable appearance, size, and shape
Specific Morphology
The nucleus of a normal cell does not take up much space inside the cell
Smaller nuclear-to-cytoplasmic ratio
Every normal cell has at least one function it performs to contribute to whole-body function
Differentiated function
Normal cells make proteins that protrude from membranes, allowing cells to bind closely and tightly together
Tight adherence
Normal cells that do not wander throughout the body except for blood cells
Nonmigratory
Proteins that promote cell division
Cyclin
Proteins that limit cell division
Suppressor gene products
A balance between cycling and suppressor gene products
Cellular regulation
The cell is getting ready for division by taking extra nutrients, making more energy, and growing extra membrane
G1 phase
The cell doubles its DNA content through DNA synthesis
S phase
The cell makes important proteins that will be used in actual cell division and in normal physiologic function after cell division is complete
G2 phase
The single cell splits apart into two cells. Mitosis
M phase
Stops further rounds of division when the dividing cell is completely surrounded and touched (contacted) by other cells
Contact inhibition
Programmed cell death
Apoptosis
Normal chromosomes in normal cells (23 chromosomes)
Euploidy
Normal cells growing in n the wrong place or at the wrong time as a result of a small problem with cellular regulation
Benign tumor cells
What kind of cell has these characteristics?
- none or slow cell division
- specific morphological features
- smaller nuclear-to-cytoplasmic ratio
- many differentiated functions
- tight adherence
- nonmigratory
- well regulated growth
- diploid chromosomes
- low mitotic index
Normal cell
What kind of cell has these characteristics?
- continuous or inappropriate cell division
- specific morphology features
- small nuclear-to-cytoplasmic ratio
- many differentiated functions
- tight adherence
- nonmigratory
- expansive growth
- diploid chromosomes
- low mitotic index
Benign tumor cell
What kind of cell has these characteristics?
- rapid or continuous cell division
- anaplastic appearance
- larger nuclear-to-cytoplasmic ratio
- some or none differentiated functions
- loose adherence
- migratory
- invasion growth
- aneuploid chromosomes
- high mitotic index
Malignant cell
Cancer cells loss of specific appearance of their parent cells
Anaplasia
Abnormal chromosomes
Aneuploidy
Cancer development
Carcinogenesis/oncogenesis
The first step in carcinogenesis
Initiation
If conditions are right how many cancer cells does it take for a widespread metastatic disease to develop?
1
Substances that change the activity of a cell’s gene so that the cell becomes a cancer cell
Carcinogens
The enhanced growth of an initiated cell
Promotion
Substances that enhance growth of an initiated cell
Promoters
The time between a cell’s initiation and the development of an overt tumor
Latency period
The continued change of a cancer, making it more malignant over time
Progression
When cancer cells move from the primary location by breaking off from the original group and establishing remote colonies
Metastasis
Additional tumors
Secondary tumors
If breast cancer spreads to the lung and the bone, what is it called?
Breast cancer
The most common type of cancer spread travels to distant organs and tissues, requires cancer cells to penetrate blood vessels
Bloodborne metastasis
Classifies cellular aspects of the cancer
Grading
Classifies tumor chromosomes as normal or abnormal
Policy
Classifies clinical aspects of the cancer
Staging
Assess the patient’s clinical manifestations and evaluates them for tumor size and possible spread
Clinical staging
Assess the tumor size, number, sites, and spread by inspection at surgery
Surgical staging
The most definite type, determining the tumor size, number, sites, and spread by inspection at surgery
Pathologic staging
This system is used to describe the anatomical extent of cancers
Tumor, node, metastasis (TNM)
The main mechanism of carcinogenesis regardless of the specific cause
Oncogene activation
When do oncogenes become a problem?
When they are overly expressed as a result of exposure to carcinogenic agents or events with loss of cellular regulation
Give an example of co-carcinogens
Tobacco and alcohol
Where do cancer cells normally arise?
Bone marrow, skin, lining of GI tract, ducal cells of the breast, and lining of lungs
Where does cancer usually not arise?
Nerve tissue, cardiac muscle, and skeletal muscle. Places where cell division does not normally occur
Example of physical carcinogenesis
Radiation and chronic irritation
When viruses infect body cells and break DNA strands
Viral Carcinogenesis
Viruses that cause cancer
Oncoviruses
Suspected dietary factors of cancer
High intake of red meat or animal fat, low fiber intake, preservatives, preparation methods, and additives
Personal factors that promote cancer development
Immune function, age, and genetic risk
The use of strategies to prevent the actual occurrence of cancer
Primary prevention
The use of screening strategies to detect cancer early, at a time when cure or control is more likely
Secondary prevention
A strategy that uses drugs, chemicals, natural nutrients, or other substances to disrupt one or more steps important to cancer development
Chemoprevention
A new method of primary cancer prevention
Vaccination
Extreme body wasting and malnutrition
Cache is
Removes “at-risk” tissue to prevent cancer development
Prophylactic surgery
The removal of all or part of a suspected lesion for examination and testing
Diagnostic surgery (biopsy)
Removes all cancer tissue
Curative surgery
Removes part of but not the entire tumor
Cancer control/ cytoreductive surgery
Focuses on improving the quality of life during the survival time, not on cure
Palliative surgery
A repeat examination after treatment to assess the disease status in patients who have been treated and have no symptoms of remaining tumor
Second-look surgery
Surgery that increases function, enhances appearance or both
Reconstructive or rehabilitative surgery
The amount of radiation delivered to a tissue
Exposure
The amount of radiation absorbed by the tissue
Radiation dose
Absorbed radiation dose units
Gray (gy)
What says the intensity of the radiation decreases with the distance from the radiation emitting source
Inverse square law
Radiation delivered from a source outside of the patient
Teletherapy
Short close therapy. The radiation source comes into direct, continuous contact with the tumor for a specific time period
Brachytherapy
Which type of radiation therapy is potentially hazardous?
Brachytherapy, the radiation source is within the patient. The patient emits radiation for a period of time.
Damage to the salivary glands by radiation therapy, dry mouth that leads to tooth decay
Xerostomia
The time when bone marrow activity and white blood cell counts are at their lowest levels after cytotoxic therapy
Nadir
The treatment of cancer with chemical agents
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy used along with surgery or radiation
Adjuvant therapy
A chemotherapy drug that cross-links DNA, making the DNA strands bind tightly together, which inhibits cell division
Alkylating agents
Similar to normal metabolites needed for vital cell processes. Impairs cell division
Anti metabolites
Interferes with the formation and actions of micro tubules so cells cannot complete mitosis during cell division
Anti mitotic agents
Damages the cell’s DNA and interrupts DNA or RNA synthesis
Antitumor antibiotics
Disrupts an enzyme essential for DNA synthesis and cell division
Topoisomerase inhibitors
Route delivers drugs into the spinal canal
Intrathecal route
Delivers drugs directly into the ventricles of the brain
Intraventricular route
Route delivers drugs within the abdominal cavity
Intraperitoneal route
Route for drugs instilled directly into the bladder
Intravesicular route
What route is it when a catheter is placed into the artery supplying the liver tumor?
Intra-arterial route
A serious complication of IV infusion when the drug leaks into the surrounding tissues
Extravasation
Chemicals and hat damage tissues on direct contact
Vesicants
The result of extravasation..
Pain, infection, and tissue loss
What is the problem with oral cancer drugs?
The perception of patients and non-oncology nurses that these drugs are less toxic than those given intravenously
Why does someone need to wear PPE when handling oral anti cancer drugs?
Because the oral agents can be absorbed through the skin and mucous membranes and exert toxic effects. Same goes for IV chemotherapy administration
Decreased numbers of red blood cells and hemoglobin
Anemia
Decreased number of white blood cells leading to immunosupression
Neutropenia
Decreased numbers of platelets
Thrombocytopenia
Hair loss
Alone is
Open sores on mucous membranes
Mucositis
When chemotherapy destroys circulating blood cells and reduces replacement of these cells by suppressing bone marrow function
Myelosuppression
Vomiting inducing drugs
Emetogenic
The loss of sensory or motor function of peripheral nerves associated with exposure to certain anticancer drugs
Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN)
A large group of substances the body makes to help regulate inflammation and immunity
Interleukins
Cell-produced proteins that have been effective to some degree in the treatment of melanoma, hairy cell leukemia, renal cell carcinoma, ovarian cancer and cutaneous T-cell lymphoma by, slowing tumor cell division, stimulating the growth and activation of NK cells, inducing cancer cells to resume a more normal appearance and function, and inhibiting the expression of oncogenes
Interferons
Antibodies that bind to their specific antigens and prevent cell division
Monoclonal antibodies
Drugs with the main action to inhibit activation of the enzyme tyrosine kinases
Tyrosine kinase inhibitors
Block epidural growth factor from binding to its cell surface
Epidural growth factor/receptor inhibitors
Binds to vascular endothelial growth factor and prevents the binding of VGEF with its receptors on the surfaces of endothelial cells present in blood vessels
Vascular endothelial growth factor/receptor inhibitors
Are drugs that inhibit the activity of specific kinases in cancer cells and in tumor blood vessels
Multikinase inhibitors (MKIs)
Work by preventing the formation of a large complex of proteins (a proteasome) in cells
Proteasome inhibitors
Target a specific protein kinase known as the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)
Angiogenesis inhibitors
The selective destruction of cancer cells through chemical reactions triggered by types of laser light
Photodynamic therapy (PDT)
Changing usual hormone responses
Hormone manipulation
Compete with natural hormones at the receptor site
Hormone antagonists
Breast development
Gynecomastia
A condition in which organisms enter the blood stream (blood stream infection) and can result in septic shock, a life-threatening condition
Sepsis or septicemia
A problem with the blood clotting process. Often caused by gram-negative sepsis, although viral and other bacterial infections can trigger it
Disseminated intravascular coagulation
Excessive ADH secretion
Syndrome of inappropriate anti diuretic hormone (SIADH)
What should you look out for with SIADH?
Preventing fluid overload from becoming worse, leading to pulmonary edema and heart failure. Older adults with coexisting cardiac problems, kidney problems, lung problems, or liver problems
When does spinal cord compression occur in cancer patients?
Either when a tumor directly enters the spinal cord or spinal column or when the vertebrae collapses from tumor degradation of the bone
Increased serum calcium level. Skeletal pain, kidney stones, abdominal discomfort, and altered cognition
Hypercalcemia
What causes hypercalcemia in cancer patients?
Cancers that secrete parathyroid hormone, causing bone to release calcium
Compression or obstruction of thin walls in superior vena cava by tumor growth or clots in the vessel that leads to congestion of the blood
Superior vena cava syndrome
Large numbers of tumor cells are destroyed rapidly
Tumor lysis syndrome
Drugs used for (CINV) for the nausea and vomiting associated with it
Antiemetics
