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Biology Y9 > Cell structures > Flashcards

Cell structures Flashcards

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1
Q

what organelles are there in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cells

A

-nucleus
-mitochondria
-ribosomes

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2
Q

nucleus function

A

-contains genetic material in chromosomes which control how cells grow and work
-controls cell division

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3
Q

cytoplasm function

A

-supports cell structures
-site of many chemical reactions
-contains water and many solutes

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4
Q

cell membrane function

A

-holds the cell together
-controls substances entering and leaving the cell

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5
Q

cell wall

A

-gives the cell extra support and defines its shape

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6
Q

chloroplasts

A

-site of photosynthesis, providing food for plants
-chlorophyll pigments absorb light energy needed for the reaction to occur

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7
Q

vacuole

A

-contains cell sap
-used for storage of certain material
-helps support the shape of the cell

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8
Q

mitochondria

A

-site of aerobic respiration, providing energy for the cell

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9
Q

ribosomes

A

site of protein production in protein synthesis

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10
Q

vesicles

A

used to safely transport substances from one part of the cell to another

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11
Q

subcellular structures in animal cells

A

nucleus: contains genetic material
-cell membranes: controls what enters and leaves the cell
-mitochondria: site of aerobic respiration
-ribosomes: site of protein synthesis
-cytoplasm: chemical reactions take place in this jelly-like substance

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12
Q

additional subcellular parts found in plant cells on top of parts found in animal cells

A

-cell wall made of cellulose
-permanent vacuole (animals have many small and temporary vacuoles)
-chloroplasts

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13
Q

cell differentiation

A

a process by which a cell changes to become specialised

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14
Q

why is cell differentiation needed

A

so cells can develop the structure and characteristics needed to carry out their functions

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15
Q

specialised cells

A

-cells that have developed certain characteristics and subcellular that allow them to perform particular functions
-these are controlled by genes in the nucleus

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16
Q

3 things that stem cells can do

A
  1. differentiate into specialised cells
  2. divide repeatedly
  3. form more stem cells
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17
Q

what happens as an organism develops in animals (stem cells)

A

-cells differentiate to form different types of cells
-normally at an early stage of development
-animals lose their ability to differentiate quite early in their life

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18
Q

what are adult stem cells and what is their function

A

-specific cells in locations throughout the body of an animal that retains the ability to differentiate throughout the life of the animal
-mainly involved in replacing and repairing cells (bone marrow has to continually make new blood cells throughout life)
-can only differentiate into a limited number of different cell types

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19
Q

what are embryonic stem cells in animals and their function

A

-help to form all of the different tissues and organs needed during development to form a new individual (totipotent
-can differentiate into any type of cell
-differentiate to form specialised cells in at an early stage

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20
Q

how do plants stem cells differ from animals stem cells

A

-many types of plant cells retain the ability to fully differentiate throughout the life of a plant

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21
Q

5 examples of specialised cells

A
  1. ciliated cell
  2. nerve cell
    3, red blood cell
  3. root hair cell
  4. palisade mesophyll cell
22
Q

ciliated cell features

A

-ciliated cells move mucus in the trachea and bronchi
-have hair-like extensions called cilia, which beat to transport mucus and trapped particles toward the throat

23
Q

nerve cell features

A

-conduct impulses and are long to allow communication between different parts of the body and the CNS
-axons are covered in a fatty (myelin) sheath that insulates and speeds up nerve transmission

24
Q

red blood cells features

A

transport oxygen efficiently due to : biconcave shape (higher SA), haemoglobin and lack of nucleus (more space of oxygen)

25
Q

root hair cell features

A

-absorb water and mineral ions from the soil
-long extensions increase surface area for maximum absorption
-thin walls help water move quickly through them

26
Q

palisade mesophyll cell

A

-cells perform photosynthesis and are column shaped to maximise light absorption
-contain chloroplasts are are tightly packed beneath the upper epidermis of the leaf to optimise photosynthesis

27
Q

source, potential and cells that can be produced from embryonic stem cell

A

-source is the inside layer of an embryo
-potential: unspecialised
-all types of specialised cells found in the body can be produced from them

28
Q

sources of adult them cells

A

-bone marrow
-skin
-other organs (liver, brain)
-umbilical cord blood

29
Q

potential of adult stem cells

A

limited ability to differentiate

30
Q

what cells can be produced from adult stem cells from bone marrow

A

cells of the blood (RBC, immune system)

31
Q

what cells can be produced from adult stem cells from skin

A

-cells found in the different layers of the skin, hair follicles

32
Q

what cells can be produced from adult stem cells from organs such as liver and the brain

A

cells that are found in that organ

33
Q

what cells can be produced from adult stem cells from umbilical cord blood

A

-cells of the blood (RBC, white blood cells)
-muscle and nerve tissue

34
Q

source, potential and what can be produced from meristem cells

A

-tips of roots and shoots (growing regions of plants)
-fully undifferentiated
-what can be produced: one cells can divide to produce a whole new plant

35
Q

how can scientists repair damaged organs using embryonic stem cells

A

-grow human embryos in a lab and extract embryonic stem cells from them.
-the cells can then be encouraged (using growth factor chemicals) to differentiate into most types of specialised cells

36
Q

how can scientists repair damaged organs using adult stem cells

A

-adult stem cells can e cultured in the lab and made to differentiate into specialised cells
-fewer types of cells can be made than
embryonic stem cells

37
Q

how can stem cells be used to cure diabetes

A
  1. inability on the pancreas to produce insulin to control blood sugar levels
  2. stem cells can be differentiated into insulin-producing pancreatic cells which are transplanted into the patient’s body
  3. stem cells from donors or therapeutic cloning
38
Q

how can stem cells be used to cure paralysis

A
  1. damage to nerve cells in the CNS, preventing signals from brain reaching muscles, resulting in loss of movement
  2. stem cells can be differentiated into nerve cells (neurone) which are transplanted into the damaged region of the nervous system
    3, stem cell donors or therapeutic cloning can be used
39
Q

advantages of using embryonic stem cells in medicine

A

-can make any cell type
-puts spare embryos from IVF to good use and can improve other people’s lives

40
Q

disadvantages of using embryonic stem cells in medicine

A

-their use could be considered as killing a potential human life
-difficult to grow in a culture, production is inefficient
-difficult to make them differentiate into the right type of specialised cell, can result in cancer
-comes from donor so immune rejection can occur

41
Q

advantages of using adult stem cells in medicine

A

-no potential human lives destroyed
-if a patient’s own cells are used the body will not reject them
-differentiation process is easier to control as it has already started, less likely to cause tumours and cancers

42
Q

disadvantages of using adult stem cells in medicine

A

-can be difficult and painful to extract
-cannot differentiate into all cell types

43
Q

clone

A

groups of cells (or organisms) that are genetically identical

44
Q

somatic

A

relating to the body cells (excluding gametes)

45
Q

cloning through embryo transplant/artificial insemination

A
  1. a prized female animal is given hormones to make it produce egg cells
  2. sperm from a prized male animal is collected and the female is artificially inseminated with this sperm
  3. the fertilised egg starts dividing to produce an embryo
  4. the embryo is removed from the uterus of the female cow
  5. embryo is split up. These start dividing into separate but genetically identical embryos
  6. the embryos are then implanted into surrogate cows (not the prized female to protect her)
  7. several clone calves are born which are genetically identical
46
Q

Describe how the process of micropropagation (tissue culture) can be used to
produce plants with desirable characteristics.

A
  1. small price of explant tissue from a shoot tip is removed from plant and sterilised
  2. plant tissue is placed in sterile nutrient agar with glucose and amino acids. It has high concentration of auxins to stimulate cell growth
  3. a callus (mass of cells) grows, which can be stored or separated many times
  4. some cells from callus can be transferred to a different medium with plant minerals and hormones to promote roots and shoot to develop
  5. the light and humidity should be controlled
47
Q

why must the conditions be sterile in miropropagation

A
  1. kills bacteria
  2. prevents disease or infection
  3. so bacteria does not affect growth of explants, less competition for minerals too
48
Q

advantages of micropropagation

A

-produces commercial quantities of new plants very quickly
-plants can be produced at any time of the year
-easier to produce plants that are difficult to grow from seed
-genetic modifications can be introduced

49
Q

disadvantages of micropropagation

A

-produces genetic variation and increases the vulnerability to change
-needs sterile laboratory facilities and can be expensive

50
Q

describe how to clone a mammal

A
  1. egg cell nucleus removed from ovaries (enucleated)
  2. somatic cell removed from mammal, which has a diploid number of chromosomes in nucleus
  3. cells are grown in starvation conditions to return them to an embryonic state
  4. somatic body cell nucleus is inserted inside the enucleated egg cell
  5. cell is stimulated by electric shock to divide by mitosis
  6. embryo is inserted into surrogate uterus
  7. cloned sheep is identical to the sheep where somatic cells were taken

Biology Y9 (6 decks)

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