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A level OCR Biology > Cell Structure > Flashcards

Cell Structure Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What did Schleiden, 1838 suggest?

A

All plants are made out of cells

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2
Q

What did Schwann, 1839 suggest?

A

All animal tissues are compromised of cells

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3
Q

What did Virchow, 1858 suggest?

A

All cells must arise from preexisting cells

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4
Q

1 cm = ?mm

A

10mm

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5
Q

1mm = ?um

A

1000um

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6
Q

1um = ?nm

A

1000nm

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7
Q

1cm Interm of meters

A

10^-2m

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8
Q

1mm Interm of meters

A

10^-3m

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9
Q

1um Interm of meters

A

10^-6m

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10
Q

1nm Interm of meters

A

10^-9m

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11
Q

Define magnification

A

How much bigger a sample appears to be under the microscope than in real life

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12
Q

What is the calculation for total magnification

A

Total magnification = objective magnification x eyepiece

magnification

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13
Q

Define resolution

A

The ability to distinguish between two points on the image

How detailed it is

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14
Q

Does increasing the magnification increase the resolution of the image?

A

No

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15
Q

What is the resolution of a light microscope?

A

200nm

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16
Q

When can two objects be resolved?

A

When light can pass between them

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17
Q

When are objects seen as one object?

A

When the objects are less than 200nm apart

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18
Q

What is a dry mount?

A

Solid specimens can be viewed whole or as very thin sections

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19
Q

What can be viewed as a dry mount?

A

Hair, dust, pollen, insects

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20
Q

What is sectioning?

A

Specimens cut with a sharp blade into very thin sections

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21
Q

What is a wet mount

A

Specimen suspended in a liquid i.e. water

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22
Q

How is the coverslip placed in a wet mount?

A

At an angle

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23
Q

What can be viewed as a wet mount?

A

Aquatic samples etc.

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24
Q

What is a squash slide?

A

A wet mount prepared and a lens tissue is used to press carefully on the coverslip

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25
Q

What is a squash slide used for?

A

Soft samples, such as root tips

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26
Q

What are smear slides?

A

The edge of a slide is used to smear a sample, creating a thin, even coating. The coverslip is then placed on the sample

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27
Q

What are smear slides good for viewing?

A

Cells in blood

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28
Q

List the ways that a slide can be made permanent?

A
  • Fixing
  • Embedding
  • Sectioning
  • Staining
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29
Q

How/why is fixing used to make a slide permanent?

A

Chemicals like formaldehyde are used to cross-link proteins, ‘fixing’ the structure of the specimen and preventing chemical breakdown

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30
Q

How/why is embedding used to make a slide permanent?

A

Some material distorts when you try and cut it into thin sections. Specimens are therefore embedded in wax or resin

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31
Q

How is sectioning used to make a slide permanent?

A

The tissue is cut using a microtome into very thin sections from 2 to 50um

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32
Q

How/why is staining used to make a slide permanent?

A

A lot of biological material is not coloured. Some chemicals can bind to the specimen, allowing it to be seen. Some of these ‘stains’ are specific to cell structures e.g. Acetic orcein stains DNA dark red

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33
Q

What stain is used in Gram staining?

A

crystal violet-iodine complex and safranin counterstain

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34
Q

What colour are Gram-positive bacteria?

A

Violet

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35
Q

Why are Gram-positive bacteria stained violet?

A

The presence of a thick layer of peptidoglycan in their cell walls because when they are washed with solvent, the cell prees close, thus becoming less permeable and retain the stain

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36
Q

What colour are Gram-negative bacteria?

A

Red

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37
Q

Why are Gram-negative bacteria stained red?

A

The thinner layer of peptidoglycan in their cell walls, and so does not retain the crystal violet whilst in the decolouring process, because the solvent dissolves the lipids, which washes out, or decolourises the stain, safranin, the counterstain is used to stain instead

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38
Q

What is the process of Gram staining?

A
  • Staining with crystal violet dye
  • Adding Gram’s iodine solution
  • Decolourising the sample
  • Counterstaining
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39
Q

What does the first stage of Gram staining involve?

A

The cells are initially stained with crystal violet dye

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40
Q

What does the second stage of Gram staining involve?

A

Then a Gram’s iodine solution (iodine and potassium iodide) is added to form a complex between the crystal violet and iodine. This complex is a bigger molecule than the previous crystal-violet stain and iodine and is insoluble in water

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41
Q

What does the third stage of Gram staining involve?

A

Next, a decolouriser such as ethanol or acetone is added to the sample, which dehydrates the peptidoglycan layer. In a Gram-positive bacteria, the crystal violet-iodine complex cannot penetrate the dehydrated peptidoglycan layer and so is trapped in the cell. However, the external membrane of Gram-negative bacteria is degraded, so the thinner peptidoglycan layer is unable to retain the crystal violet-iodine complex, and the colour is lost.

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42
Q

What does the fourth and final stage of Gram staining involve?

A

Finally, a counterstain, like safranin, because it is barely water-soluble; is added to the sample, staining it red. The safranin does not affect the violet colouration in Gram-positive cells because it is lighter than crystal violet. Conversely, the decolourised cells are stained red.

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43
Q

What is another name for a laser scanning confocal microscope?

A

Confocal microscope

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44
Q

What does the laser scanning confocal microscope allow?

A

Clear observation of whole, living specimens and can focus on structures at different depths within a specimen

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45
Q

What resolution and contrast does the laser scanning confocal microscope images have?

A

High resolution and contrast

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46
Q

What is the maximum resolution of a laser scanning confocal microscope?

A

0.8um

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47
Q

How are the images formed in a confocal microscope?

A

Focusing a single spot of laser light and moving it across the specimen. This causes fluorescence by the components labelled with a dye

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48
Q

What light is detected in a confocal microscope?

A

Light emitted very close to the focal plane

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49
Q

What type of images (2D or 3D) are produced and how?

A

3D images are produced by creating images at different focal planes

50
Q

What fields are confocal microscope generally used in?

A

Medicine as it makes diagnosis earlier and allows early treatment

51
Q

What does a Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) use to form images?

A

Electrons, not light

52
Q

How are electrons used in a TEM?

A

The electrons pass through a very thin prepared sample

53
Q

How can a TEM give contrast?

A

It gives some contrast as electrons pass through denser parts of the sample less easily

54
Q

What type of image (2D or 3D) is produced?

A

2D

55
Q

What is the approximate magnification of a TEM?

A

x500,000

56
Q

What is the approximate resolution of a TEM?

A

0.05 - 1 nm

57
Q

What is an advantage of a TEM?

A

Can see tiny organelles that are not visible with a light microscope

58
Q

What is a disadvantage of a TEM?

A

Black and white images - artificially coloured to highlight structures

59
Q

What does SEM stand for?

A

Scanning Electron Microscope

60
Q

When was the SEM first used?

A

1963

61
Q

How does the SEM produce an image?

A

The electron beam is directed onto the sample, but it doesn’t pass through the specimen
The electrons are ‘bounced’ off the sample and collected by special detectors

62
Q

What type of image (2D or 3D) is produced?

A

3D

63
Q

What is the approximate resolution of an SEM?

A

3-`10nm

64
Q

What is the approximate magnification of an SEM

A

x100,000

65
Q

How are samples prepared?

A

Coated with a heavy metal such as gold

66
Q

What is an advantage of an SEM?

A

Detailed surface view

Has a depth of field

67
Q

What is a disadvantage of an SEM?

A

Black and white images - artificially coloured to highlight structures

68
Q

What are the ways that can be used to prepare a specimen for TEM?

A
  • Fixing
  • Embedding
  • Slicing (Sectioning)
69
Q

Why is fixing used to prepare a sample for TEM?

A

Preventing breakdown. But it can cause changes in the appearance of some organelles

70
Q

Why is embedding used to prepare a sample for TEM?

A

Set the sample in a solid-state e.g. paraffin wax, so it doesn’t crumble when thin sections are cut

71
Q

Why is slicing/sectioning used to prepare a specimen for TEM?

A

So a thin specimen that is 1000nm or less is able to be used

72
Q

What is done to the specimen once it is prepared for TEM?

A

It is stained with heavy metal ions to repel electrons and make the images visible

73
Q

Why is fixing used to prepare a sample for SEM?

A

Preventing breakdown. But it can cause changes in the appearance of some organelles

74
Q

What is done to the specimen for an SEM?

A

It is coated in a thin layer of a heavy metal

75
Q

What is the process of protein synthesis?

A
  • An mRNA copy of the gene is made in the nucleus in a process called transcription
  • The mRNA leaves the nucleus through a nuclear pore and attaches to a ribosome on the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
  • The ribosome ‘reads’ the code to assemble the chain of amino acids that make up the protein in a process called translation
  • The protein molecules enter the cisternae of the endoplasmic reticulum where they are ‘pinched off’ in transport vesicles, which travel to towards the Golgi apparatus and fuse with the cis face
  • In the cisternae of the Golgi apparatus, the proteins are modified, by adding molecules such as sugars and lipids
  • The modified protein molecules move through the Golgi apparatus and are pinched off in secretory vesicles
  • The secretory vesicles move towards and fuse with the cell surface membrane and are released into the extracellular environment in a process known as exocytosis
76
Q

What does the nucleus do?

A
  • Contains genetic material
  • Controls the cellular activities through mRNA and tRNA production
  • Produces rRNA (ribosomal RNA)
77
Q

What type of membrane does a nucleus have?

A

A double membrane. The outer membrane continues to form the endoplasmic reticulum

78
Q

What are nuclear pores?

A

Small holes in the nuclear envelope that allow substances to move in and out of the nucleus

79
Q

How big are nuclear pores?

A

40 - 100nm

80
Q

What is nucleoplasm?

A

Granular, jelly-like material that makes up the rest of the cytoplasm

81
Q

What is the nucleolus?

A

A spherical structure that produces ribosomal RNA

82
Q

What are chromosomes?

A

Protein-bound, linear DNA

83
Q

What does the nuclear envelope form?

A

It continues to form the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum, which continues to form the Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

84
Q

What is the Golgi apparatus/body?

A

It is completely separate from the nucleus. It is a stack of membrane-bound, flattened sacks that are responsible for the modification of proteins received from the ER, these proteins are then transported around the cell in secretory/transport vesicles, and has secretory vesicles coming off its edges

85
Q

What are the roles of mitochondria?

A
  • Carry out aerobic respiration (Krebs cycle and Oxidative Phosphorylation)
86
Q

What type of membrane do mitochondria have?

A

A double membrane

87
Q

Why is the inner membrane of mitochondria folded?

A

To form cristae

88
Q

What is the role of cristae in mitochondria?

A

Provide a large surface area for the attachment of enzymes and proteins involved in respiration

89
Q

What does the matrix of mitochondria contain?

A
  • Proteins
  • Ribosomes
  • Lipids
  • DNA
  • Some enzymes required for photosynthesis (in plants only)
90
Q

What is the role of the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum?

A

Transports proteins that are synthesised in the ribosomes

91
Q

What is the role of the Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum?

A

Synthesises lipids

92
Q

What are the flattened sacs called that make up the ER?

A

Cisternae

93
Q

Why is the RER called the RER?

A

It has ribosomes on its outer surface

94
Q

What does the nucleus create?

A

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) and Ribosomes

95
Q

What are lysosomes?

A

Specialised vesicles, they are membrane-bound spherical sacs which contain digestive enzymes used to break down materials

96
Q

What is produced in the mitochondria during aerobic respiration?

A

ATP

97
Q

What are ribosomes?

A

Small organelles, composed of two subunits, that make proteins from mRNA

98
Q

What organelle is found in animal cells only?

A

Centrioles

99
Q

What are centrioles?

A

A pair of short, hollow cylinders, usually found near the nucleus of an animal cell. They are involved in the formation of spindle fibres

100
Q

What is the cytoskeleton?

A

A network of fine filaments or fibres that run through the cytoplasm of the cell

101
Q

What are the three types of fibres in the cytoskeleton?

A
  • Microfilaments
  • Intermediate filaments
  • Microtubules
102
Q

What is the size of the microfilament?

A

7nm in diameter

103
Q

What is the composition of the microfilament?

A

Protein: actin

104
Q

What is the function of the microfilament?

A

Responsible for all cell movement and contraction
It is contractile
In cytokinesis, it is involved in the cell contracting during division

105
Q

What is the composition of the intermediate filament?

A

Made up of a variety of proteins that are expressed in different types of cells

106
Q

What is the function of the intermediate filament?

A

Provides mechanical strength and helps to maintain cell integrity

107
Q

What is the composition of the microtubule?

A

Tubulin (a globular protein that forms tubes)

108
Q

What are the functions of the microtubule?

A
  • Transport; forms a trackway which helps the movement of organelles and vesicles
  • Spindle fibres - chromosome separation
  • Centrioles - found in eukaryotes (not flowering plants)
    - orders spindle fibres (cell division)
    - Role in the positioning of cilia and flagella
109
Q

What organelles are found in plant cells only

A
  • Chloroplasts
  • Permanent vacuole
  • Cell Wall
110
Q

What is the role of chloroplasts?

A

Responsible for photosynthesis, they contain the pigments which absorb the suns light energy and carry out the reaction of photosynthesis

111
Q

What are permanent vacuoles?

A

A fluid-filled space in the cytoplasm surrounded by a membrane called the tonoplast. It contains a solution of sugars and salts called the cell sap

112
Q

What is the cell wall?

A

Is rigid and made of cellulose fibres running through a mixture of other polysaccharides

113
Q

What type of membrane do chloroplasts have?

A

A double membrane

114
Q

What is the stroma in chloroplasts?

A

A fluid-filled matrix where the second stage of photosynthesis takes place

115
Q

What are the grana in chloroplasts?

A

A stack of thylakoids

The granal membranes increase the surface area for photosynthesis pigments

116
Q

What are thylakoids in chloroplasts?

A

Contain photosynthetic pigments like chlorophylls and xanthophyll

117
Q

Which of these is the correct equation for the calculation of an object size?
A. Object size = Image size x Magnification
B. Object size = Magnification / Image size
C. Object size = Image size / Magnification
D. None of the above

A

C

118
Q

State the function of mitochondria

A

Does respiration

119
Q

State the function of smooth endoplasmic reticulum

A

Synthesises lipids

120
Q

Explain why the details of mitochondria cannot be seen clearly with a very good light microscope

A

The length of a mitochondrion is about 200nm, the maximum resolution of a light microscope, so increasing the magnification of the light microscope would make the image blurry

121
Q

Describe the advantages of staining specimens to be viewed under a microscope

A

Staining gives contrast so different organelles can be seen separately

A level OCR Biology (7 decks)

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