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the patient > cell structure > Flashcards

cell structure Flashcards

1
Q

4 different types of tissues?

A

epithelial, connective (scaffolding), muscle, nervous tissue

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2
Q

what structure helps muscle cells to provide energy ?

A

lots of mitochondria

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3
Q

what does the nucleus do?

A

nucleus works as the command centre giving out instructions

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4
Q

what does the cell membrane do?

A

cell membrane provides protection, letting things in and out

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5
Q

X what does the structure of the nucleus look like

A

the nucleus has the nucleolus in the middle, the nuclear envelope with nuclear pore surrounding everything, withing the nuclear envelope is chromatin (dna and portein that forms chromosones)

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6
Q

X what does dna (de-oxyribonucleic acid) do?

A

dna codes for the instructions directing the cell

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7
Q

X what is heterochromatin?

A

heterochromatin is tightly packed form of dna

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8
Q

X hemtochromatin is inactive for transcription. What does this mean?

A

TRANSCRIPTIONALLY INACTIVE MEANS ITS NOT ABLE TO MAKE a RNA copy of a gene’s DNA sequence. This copy, called messenger RNA (mRNA), carries the gene’s protein information encoded in DNA.

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9
Q

X what is EUCHROMATIN?

A

EUCHROMATIN is less condensed and active for transcription.

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10
Q

X what is transcription?

A

Transcription is the description of the way the DNA code is read and the messages sent to messenger RNA

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11
Q

X what structure is like a wiggly line joint to the nucleus?

A

cisternae is attached to the nucleus

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12
Q

what is the nucleolus responsible for?

A

the nucleolus is the site of risbosomal RNA SYNTHESIS.

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13
Q

What is the function of the nuclear pore?

A

nucelar pore is essential for exporting (sending out) ribosomal RNA and Dna and import (bringing in) blocks of RNA and Dna from cytoplasm. Highly regulated and co-ordinated.

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14
Q

what is the endoplasmic reticulum?

A

there is rough and soft ER. rough has ribosomes attached for production of proteins, folding proteins and quality control. soft ER synthesis of lipids like steroid hormones and phospholipids, calcium storage, detoxification (liver)

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15
Q

what is the function of the GOLGI APPARATUS?

A

THE GOLGIC APPARATUS is the packing and distribution centre, processes secreted proteins, sorts proteins and directs localisation, vesicles allow communication, lysosome formation.

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16
Q

what happens in the reR

A

protein synthesis

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17
Q

what does rer look like and why

A

sand-paper due to layer of ribsosomes on the membrane

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18
Q

X where is rer positioned in the cell

A

close to the nucleus an extension of the outer membrane in the nuclear envelope

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19
Q

X what is cisternae? where is it found?

A

cisternae is a membrane bound flattened sac like structure found near RER

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20
Q

what does the golgi do related to the ER

A

Modifies (makes minor changes to) products of the Endoplasmic Reticulum, synthesises (makes something chemically) macromolecules and packages materials into TRANSPORT VESICLES.

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21
Q

X where is the lysosome in terms of the cell?

A

around the cell

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22
Q

what is lysosome?

A

single membrane spherical membrane can lead to programme cell death.

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23
Q

X where is the golgi found?

A

golgi is found next to the rer which is attached to the nuclear envelope

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24
Q

what do lysosomes contain?

A

hydrolytic enzymes that break down proteins, lipids, polysaccharides, dna, rna

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25
Q

when the lysosome releases digestive enzymes into the cell to control cell to control cell death, what cells are killed and how?

A

lysosomes’ enzyme eat up matured cells.

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26
Q

where is SER

A

next to the RER

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27
Q

what is a vesicle

A

membrane wrapped container that transports chemicals and proteins around the cell body

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28
Q

how do vesicles move around the cell?

A

cytoskeleton

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29
Q

X what is endo and exo cytosis

A

endocytosis is when vesicles enter the cell and exocytosis is when it exits the cell

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30
Q

X what processes does lysosomes digest material by?

A

phagocytosis (bacteria), endocytosis (receptor bound substance), autophagy (recycling organelles)

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31
Q

X what conditions do lysosomes work in?

A

very acidic conditions due to proton pump bringing h+ ions into the cell (mitochondria)

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32
Q

where are vacuoles found

A

plant and animal cells

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33
Q

what do vacuoles do ?

A

used for storage, fluid nutrients and waste products

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34
Q

what are endomembrane components? (6)

A

nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum: rough and smooth, Golgi apparatus, transport vesicles, lysosomes.

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35
Q

what is the functions of peroxisomes?

A

carry out oxidation reactions as they contain enzymes

36
Q

how do peroxisomes deal with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) which is extremely toxic?

A

peroxisomes also contain the enzyme catalase which decomposes hydrogen peroxide either by converting it to water or by using it to oxidse another organic compound.

37
Q

how is toxic hydrogen peroxide made by peroxisomes?

A

when peroxisomes break down organic compounds they create hydrogen peroxide which is then quickly turned back to water and oxygen.

38
Q

what enzyme in the liver breaks down ethanol ?

A

alcohol dehydrogenase

39
Q

what can peroxisomes produce (synthesise) in lipid biosynthesis?

A

cholesterol and phospholipids

40
Q

what is the difference between lysosomes and peroxisomes?

A

they each contain different enzymes and peroxisomes are for oxidation.

41
Q

PEROXISOMES CONTAIN A CRYSTALLINE CORE. WHAT DOES THIS MEAN?

A

the crystalline core is made up of enzymes that carry out various chemical reactions.

42
Q

what does the structure of a peroxisome look like?

A

crystalline core (centre) with lipid bilayer (two layer as is phospholipid bilayer), outermost layer is plasma membrane.

43
Q

what is the balanced equation for catalase enzyme converting hydrogen peroxide?

A

2H2O —-catalase—> 2H2O + O2

44
Q

where are peroxisomes found?

A

cell cytoplasm and are free floating

45
Q

what is the mitochondria AND ITS FUNCTION?

A

double membrane-bound organelle, generates energy by creating ATP source of chemical energy, and has its own DNA.

46
Q

WHAT IS ATP

A

adenosine triphosphate

47
Q

what is cistae and its purpose?

A

the folding in the inner membrane of the mitochondria to increase surface area.

48
Q

what does the cell membrane look like?

A

phospholipid bilayer (hydrophilic head, and hydrophobic tail), glycoprotein, globular protein, protein channel (transport protein), alpha helix protein- it looks coiled up (integral protein), glycolipid.

49
Q

what are the functions of the membrane? (8)

A
  1. compartmentalise cell (divide into categories)
  2. protect cell
  3. control the movement of molecules
  4. transmit signals
  5. permit cell recognition (ability to distinguish one cell from another)
  6. provide communication with surrounding cells
  7. perform reactions
  8. allow cell/ organelle motility (movement of cell)
50
Q

what are the hydrophilic heads of the phospholipid bilayer made from?

A

(starting from the top part of the head) choline, serine, and the next part phosphate, and the section after that is glycerol.

51
Q

what is the hydrophobic tail made from?

A

fatty acids

52
Q

what does amphipathic molecule mean?

A

a molecule having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts

53
Q

what diseases are linked to lysosomes?

A

cancer, lysosomal storage disease

54
Q

what disease is linked to peroxisome?

A

peroxisomal disorder

55
Q

X what disease is linked to mitochondrion?

A

cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, neuromuscular diseases

56
Q

X what disease is linked to cytoskeleton?

A

cancer, neurodegenerative disease

57
Q

X what disease is linked to mRNA?

A

cancer, infectious diseases

58
Q

X what disease is linked to cytosol?

A

cancer, autoimmune diseases (mistakenly attack normal cells)

59
Q

X what is the cytosol

A

the cytosol is the fluid in the cell - the surrounding

60
Q

X what is the cytoplasm?

A

its the cytosol (fluid in cell) and the organelles withing the cell except from the nucleus

61
Q

X what is an ER-related disease?

A

cancer, infectious diseases, protein folding disease

62
Q

what is a nucleus-related disease?

A

DNA drugs, cancer

63
Q

what is a golgi related disease?

A

cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, glycosylation diseases

64
Q

what is cancer?

A

cancer: uncontrolled cell growth

65
Q

how does cancer arise due to the nucleus?

A

genetic mutations may result in cancer from the activation of oncogenes (causing cells to divide), and suppression of tumor suppressor genes (stops the genes that stop cancer from working)

66
Q

how can drugs be used to stop cancer from forming due to the nucleus?

A

cell cycle can be targeted by drugs

67
Q

X what is involved in DNA REPAIR AND REPLICATION?

A

FOLATE and vitamin B12.

68
Q

X what damages dna?

A

free radicals in cells

69
Q

X how are free radicals made in cells

A

When cells use oxygen to generate energy, free radicals are created as a consequence of ATP production by the mitochondria.

70
Q

X what can reduce free radicals in dna

A

nutrition, healthy diet

71
Q

what is DOXORUBICIN? what does it do?

A

doxorubicin: type of chemotherapy drug. slows growth of cancer cells by blocking the enzyme topo isomerase 2. cancer cells need this enzyme to divide and grow.

72
Q

how do drug manufacturers made doxorubicin target the mitochondria?

A

drug manufacturers add protein to doxorubicin to make it target mitochondria.

73
Q

what does the doxorubicin do once it enters the mitochondria?

A

inhibits DNA topo isomerase 2 which is found in the nucleus and mitochondria. decreasing the number of cancerous cells.

74
Q

how is doxorubicin pumped out of the cells?

A

doxorubicin is pumped out by P-glycoportein transporter Pgp

75
Q

WHAT IS A NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASE?

A

IT CAN BE memory based diseases like alzhemeirs, anything that is associated with the loss of function of the brain like Parkinson’s disease

76
Q

how does BETA AMYLOID PEPTIDES cause Alzheimer’s disease?

A

beta amyloid peptides activates enzymes that modify GOLGI structural proteins in neuron’s leading to nerve cell death.

77
Q

how does Parkinson’s disease arise?

A

golgi disintegration (breakdown) involves proteins important for membrane transport to be damaged.

78
Q

treatment for alzheimer’s

A

LECANEMAB approved by US FDA- monoclonal antibody (clones of your body’s antibodies) that reduces the clumping of beta amyloid plaques which reduce nerve cell death.

79
Q

alleviation of symptoms drugs FOR
parkinsons

A

acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors: decrease levels of acetylcholine, a substance in the brain that helps nerve cells communicate with each other. allows dopamine levels to rebalance which helps relieve some symptoms.

80
Q

is there any treatment for parkisons diseases?

A

no , but there are therapies like physio that help with muscle stiffness

81
Q

what is POMPE disease? (lysosomal storage disease)

A

glycogen not being broken down leading to gastrointestinal issues, muscle weakness, cardiac problems

82
Q

what enzyme is associated with pope disease?

A

pope disease is caused by a genetic mutation that impairs the function of the enzyme acid alpha-glucosidase (GAA). this enzyme normally breaks down a complex sugar molecule called glycogen. glycogen builds up to toxic levels in body tissue especially in muscle.

83
Q

pope disease treatments ERT MEDICATIONS (ENZYME REPLACEMENT TREATMENT) –>2

A
  1. LUMIZYME
  2. NEXVIAZYME

BOTHER THERAPIES ARE MARKETED BY SANOFI

84
Q

WHAT IS PEROXISOME DISEASE?

A

Zellweger syndrome- lack the enzymes to oxidise fatty acids so the peroxisomes are empty (crystalline core).

85
Q

what are some Zellweger syndrome symptoms?

A

neurological deficits, loss of muscle tone (hypotonia), hearing loss, vision problems, liver dysfunction, kidney abnormalities.

86
Q

in terms of lysosomal therapies what can be done to the bone marrow

A

bone marrow transplant to allow clearance of cells containing damaging substrate

the patient (8 decks)

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