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BIOLOGY OCR > Cell Division and Cell Differentiation > Flashcards

Cell Division and Cell Differentiation Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the stages of the Eukaryotic cell cycle?

A

Gap phase 1 (sometimes gap phase 0)
Synthesis
Gap phase 2
Meitosis

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2
Q

What happens during Gap phase 1?

A

Cell growth/increase size
Transcribe RNA
Duplicate organelles
Biosynthesis

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3
Q

What happens during synthesis?

A

DNA replication

commits the cell to completing the cell cycle

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4
Q

Why must synthesis occur very fast?

A

As DNA is replicate, bases get exposed which are susceptible to mutagenic agents

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5
Q

What happens during Gap phase 2?

A

Cell growth

Preparation for mitosis

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6
Q

Is it possible to exit the cell cycle if so, how?

A

Yes
This can happen through a resting phase called Gap phase 0 this is where:
Apoptosis (programmed cell death) can occur
Differentiation - stops dividing
Can stay there indefinitely

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7
Q

What are sister chromatids

A

Replicated chromosomes

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8
Q

How is the cell cycle regulated

A

Using checkpoints

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9
Q

Why does the cell cycle need to be replicated?

A

To prevent uncontrolled division of cells

Detect DNA damage

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10
Q

What happens if checkpoints fail?

A

Cancer can arise - which is the result of uncontrolled cell division/defects

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11
Q

When do the check points occur

A

Before synthesis and meitosis

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12
Q

What are the 2 checkpoints

A

G1/S (Gap phase 1 /Synthesis)

G2/M (Gap phase 2/Meitosis)

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13
Q

Can the cell cycle be reversed?Why?

A

No - because of the check points

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14
Q

What is the role of the G1/S checkpoint

A

The cell checks for any damage to the DNA and that the cell is ready to enter S phase- that the cell is the correct size and nutrients/growth factors are present .

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15
Q

What is the role of the G2/M checkpoint?

A

The cell checks whether the DNA has been replicated without damage and that the cell is the correct size

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16
Q

How many times can DNA be replicated during the cell cycle?

A

Once

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17
Q

What is G1 S and G2 together known as?

A

Interphase

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18
Q

What is meitosis?

A

The division of the cell into 2 genetically identical (diploid) daughter cells

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19
Q

What is meitosis used for?

A

Growth
Tissue repair
Asexual reproduction

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20
Q

What are the stages of meitosis?

A 
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase 
Telophase 
(Cytokinesis)
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21
Q

What happens during Prophase?

A 
Chromosomes condense and supercoil
Nuclear envelope divides
Centriole divides
New centrioles move to opposite poles
Spindle forms
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22
Q

What happens during Metaphase?

A

Sister chromatids attach to the spindle by their centromeres and line up on the equator

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23
Q

What happens during Anaphase?

A

Centromeres of the sister chromatids split

Motor proteins drag the chromatids towards the poles of the cell

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24
Q

What happens during Telophase?

A

New nuclear envelopes form around the chromosomes

Cell contains 2 nuclei

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25
Q

What happens during cytokinesis in plant cells?

A

End plate forms at the equator
New bits of plasma membrane form on either side of the end plate
Forms 2 cells

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26
Q

What happens during cytokinesis in animal cells?

A

Cell inches off in the middle

Cytoplasm splits

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27
Q

What is meiosis important for?

A

Sexual reproduction

increases genetic variation by random fertilisation

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28
Q

What are diploid cells

A

cells containing 2 sets of chromosomes

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29
Q

What are haploid cells

A

cells containing 1 set of chromosomes

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30
Q

What is random feritlisation

A

random fusion of nuclei of gametes

31
Q

Give an example of haploid cell

A

Gametes (egg cell)

32
Q

What are homologous chromosomes

A

one chromosome comes from the mother and one comes from the father containing genes that code for the same thing - can contain different alleles

33
Q

How many cells produced in meiosis?

A

4 non-identical haploid cells

34
Q

What are the stages in meiosis?

A 
Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II
35
Q

What happens during Prophase I?

A 
Chromosomes condense and supercoil 
Centrioles divide and move to cell poles
Spindle forms
Nuclear envelope breaks down
Crossing over occurs
36
Q

What is crossing over in meiosis?

A

Sister chromatids wrap around eachother, joining at the chiasmata and exchange sections to shuffle alleles

37
Q

What happens during Metaphase I?

A

Homologous chromosomes align on the equator and attach to spindle at their centromere

38
Q

What happens during Anaphase I?

A

Homologous chromosomes are pulled apart, centromeres don’t divide

39
Q

What happens during Telophase I?

A

Two nuclear envelopes form, cytokinesis occurs and brief interphase

40
Q

Do plants undergo Telophase I

A

No, they go straight from Anaphase I to Prophase II

41
Q

What happens during Prophase II?

A

Newly formed nuclear envelopes break down (animals only)
Chromosomes condense and supercoil
Centrioles divide and move to cell poles
Spindle forms

42
Q

What happens during Metaphase II?

A

Sister chromosomes align on the equator and attach to the spindles

43
Q

What happens during Anaphase II?

A

Centromeres divide, chromatids are pulled apart

44
Q

What happens during Telophase II?

A

Nuclear envelope forms around the 4 haploid nuclei
In animals - 2 cells divide to from 4
In plants - tetrad structure of 4 haploid cells form

45
Q

What are the ways in which genetic diversity is created in meiosis?

A

Crossing over of chromosomes creates different allele combinations
Mutations (in meitosis too)
Dividing the chromosomes and sister chromatids in Anaphase I and II ensures that each of the four daughter cells has adifferent combination of alleles

46
Q

Define differentiation

A

the process by which cells, tissue, and organs get specialised features, especially during embryonic development. (switching genes on and off)

47
Q

Define specialisation

A

The adaptation of an organ or part to serve a special function.

48
Q

How can cells differentiate?

A

Change proportions of organelles in a cell
Vary shape of cell
Vary the cellular contents (e.g. protein content)

49
Q

What are tissues?

A

group of cells that work together to perform a common function

50
Q

What are organs?

A

group of tissues that work together to perform a common function

51
Q

What cells make up the cross section of the leaf

A 
Waxy cuticle
Upper epidermis
Palisade mesophyll
Spongy mesophyll
Lower epidermis + guard cell
Waxy cuticle
52
Q

How does the specialisation of palisade cells allow it to complete its function?

A

Long cylindrical shape, packed vertically in a leaf - maximising light absorption.
Large vacuole which pushes the chloroplast to the edges of the cell - short diffusion distance of CO2.
It has lots of chloroplast which can be moved up or down by motor proteins on cytoskeletal threads depending on the amount of light available

53
Q

How does the specialisation of guard cells allow it to complete its function?

A

Contains chloroplasts to turn light energy into ATP which move potassium ions into the guard cell so water enters by a change in water potential
Cell wall is thicker in the middle of the cells than at the end so when turgid the cells bend due to the differences in thickness opening stomata, allowing gases to diffuse through

54
Q

How does the specialisation of root hair cells allow it complete its function?

A

Hair like projections increase surface area to absorb more water and minerals from the soil
Many carrier proteins on plasma membrane actively transport mineral ions into the cells
Many mitochondria provide ATP for
active transport

55
Q

Where can stem cells be found in plants?

A

In meristem tissue at the root, shoot and cambium of vascular bundles

56
Q

What are the features/structure of meristem tissue

A

Thin cell wall
no chloroplast
no large vacuole

57
Q

Are meristem cells capable of undergoing meitosis

A

yes

58
Q

How is the xylem specialised for its function

A

Contains lignin which strengthens the cell and makes it waterproof
Lignin deposited, causes cells in the xylem tissue to die
Cell walls at the ends break down allowing the xylem vessel to become a continuous column
Contains no organelles for greater water flow

59
Q

How is the phloem specilised for its function

A

Contains live cells
Sieve tubes lose most of their organelles and develop sieve plates to allow sugar through
Has companion cells because the cells are still alive but lose its organelles
Companion cells have many mitochondria and provide ATP for loading sugars into sieve tubes

60
Q

What are pluripotent cells

A

Cells has the potential to differentiate and specialise into any cell type that that organism can produce.

61
Q

What are the main plant organs and what are their roles

A

Flower - reproduction
Stem - support plant and transport things
Leaf - photosynthesis
Root - anchor plant in the ground, storage, absorption of water

62
Q

Erythrocytes and neutrophils come from stem cells found where

A

bone marrow

63
Q

What is the function of Erythrocytes?

A

Carry oxygen from lungs to respiring cells

Carry carbon dioxide from cells to the lungs

64
Q

How are erythrocytes specialised for its function

A

Small - has large surface area to volume ratio
Contains no organelles to maximise space for hb
Has biconcave shape - allows flexibility, to fit through tiny capillaries

65
Q

What is the function of neutrophils

A

Ingest invading pathogens

66
Q

How are neutrophils specialised for its function?

A

large - 2x RBC
contains many lysosomes
enzymes in lysosomes are specialised to kill microorganisms

67
Q

How are spematozoa (sperm cell) specialised for its function

A

Many mitochondria that generate ATP for movement
Sperm head contain (acrosome) specialised lysosomes to break down wall of egg
Small, long and thin to ease movement
Tail helps to propel/move the sperm
Haploid to fulfil role as gamete

68
Q

What are the function of epithelial cells

A

lining of airways and intestines

69
Q

How are epithelial cells specialised for its function

A

Squamous cells – flattened in shape to maximise surface area

Ciliated cells – have many cilia on cell surface - wafts mucus up the throat

70
Q

What are the 4 main types of tissue in animals

A

Muscle
epithelial
Connective
Nervous

71
Q

What are the 2 types of epithilial tissue

A

Squamous

Ciliated

72
Q

How are squamous epithelial tissue specialised for their function

A

Made almost entirely of closely packed cells with short cell cycles
Line other tissues, vessels and surfaces
Mainly for secretion and protection

73
Q

How are ciliated epithelial tissue specialised for their function

A

Made of closely packed cells with short cell cycles
Contain many small projections (cilia or microvilli) at the surface to increase surface area
Mainly for secretion and absorption

BIOLOGY OCR (12 decks)

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