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Module 2- Biological Basics > Cell division > Flashcards

Cell division Flashcards

1
Q

Name the phases of the cell cycle

A

G1, S, G2 (Interphase) Mitosis, Cytokinesis (Mitotic phase)

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2
Q

What happens during G1?

A

Cell growth- Organelles replicate and protein production occurs.

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3
Q

What happens during S?

A

Synthesis- DNA is replicated

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4
Q

What happens during G2?

A

Cell growth- energy stores are increased, duplicated DNA is checked for errors.

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5
Q

What happens during mitosis?

A

The nucleus divides

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6
Q

What happens during cytokinesis?

A

The cytoplasm divides and two genetically identical daughter cells are released.

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7
Q

What is G0 and what happens?

A

G0 is the name given to cells outside of the cell cycle. This might happen because of differentiation, DNA might be damaged, and preventing uncontrollable cell division.

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8
Q

Give the names of the phases of mitosis.

A

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase (Cytokinesis)

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9
Q

How is the cell cycle controlled?

A

Using checkpoints, involving kinases and cyclins.

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10
Q

Where are the cell cycle checkpoints?

A

G1, G2, M (spindle assembly)

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11
Q

Why is it important to regulate the cell cycle?

A

Uncontrolled cell division is harmful and can cause issues with the function of the body.

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12
Q

What is the function of a kinase?

A

To add a phosphate group to another molecule (phosphorylation)

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13
Q

How do cell cycle checkpoints work?

A

The CDK (kinase) phosphorylyses a protein called a cyclin, forming a cyclin- CDK complex, which then catalyse the activation of key cell-cycle proteins.

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14
Q

What causes the formation of a tumor?

A

Damage or spontaneous mutation of genes that encode proteins involved in the cell cycle. An overexpression of a cyclin gene, abnormal amounts of cyclins would disrupt the regulation, leading to uncontrolled cell division.

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15
Q

What does asexual reproduction use?

A

Mitosis

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16
Q

How do bacteria asexually reproduce?

A

Binary Fission

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17
Q

What is a chromatid?

A

Two identical molecules of DNA, joined together by a region called the centromere.

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18
Q

What is a chromosome?

A

A long molecule of DNA

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19
Q

What does DNA combine with in interphase and what is the complex called?

A

DNA forms with proteins called histones which make a dense comlex called chromatin.

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20
Q

Why is it essential that the chromatids are kept together?

A

So they can be precisely segragated equally into each of the two new daughter cells.

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21
Q

Describe prophase in mitosis.

A

Chromatin coils and condenses, the nucleolus disappears and the nuclear membrane begins to dissolve. Microtubules start to form the spindle fibres attatched to centrioles at each end of the pole. Finally, the nuclear membrane disappears.

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22
Q

Describe metaphase in mitosis.

A

Chromatids line up on the metaphase plate in the middle of the cell and spindle fibres attatch to the centromeres.

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23
Q

Describe anaphase in mitosis.

A

The spindle fibres contract, and the centromeres divide, bringing one chromosone (half a chromatid) to each end of the cell.

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24
Q

Describe telophase in mitosis.

A

The chromatids have reached the centrioles of each pole and are now called chromosomes. Two new nuclear envelopes start to reform.

25
Q

What is a cleavage furrow?

A

An indentation in the surface of animal cells that pulls the membrane in allowing it to fuse in the middle.

26
Q

Why do plant cells not have a cleavage furrow?

A

Cellulose cell walls make it impossible.

27
Q

What are sex cells called?

A

Gametes

28
Q

What are fertilised egg cells called?

A

Zygotes

29
Q

How are gametes formed?

A

Meiosis

30
Q

What differentiates meiosis from mitosis?

A

The cell divides four times instead of two

31
Q

How many chromosomes do human diploid cells have?

A

46- 23 from the mother, 23 from the father.

32
Q

Why must gametes only have half the number of chromosomes?

A

Because two gametes will form a zygote, which is the origin of all cells in the organism, and which will need to divide normally.

33
Q

Meiosis is known as reduction division. Explain why.

A

Meiosis is known as reduction revision because each gamete contains half the genetic information as the parent cell.

34
Q

What are gametes also known as?

A

Haploid cells

35
Q

Define homologous chromosomes.

A

A pair of chromosomes with matching sets of genes.

36
Q

What is the name for different versions of the same gene?

A

Alleles

37
Q

Describe the difference between Meiosis 1 and Meiosis 2

A
  1. The first division, when pairs of duplicated homologous chromosones seperate into two cells. Intermediate cells now xontain one full set of genetic information instead of two.
  2. In the second division, pairs of chromatids are seperated, forming four new haploid daughter cells, with 23 chromosones each.
38
Q

What is it called when homologous chromosomes pair up?

A

Bivalents

39
Q

What is the name of a position on a gene?

A

Locus (Loci)

40
Q

What happens in Prophase 1?

A

Same as prophase in mitosis, but with homologous chromosomes coiling up, and chromatids entangling.

41
Q

Describe what happens in Metaphase 1.

A

Homologous chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate, but maternal and paternal chromosomes can end up facing either pole. This is called independant assortment.

42
Q

Describe Anaphase 1.

A

Homologous chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles and chromatids stay joined together. Sections of DNA on the chromatids can become entangled and so some break off and rejoin. These points are called the chiasmata, and it results in genetic variation as it changes the sequence of alleles.

43
Q

Describe Metaphase 2.

A

Individual chromosomes assemble on the metaphase plate, but due to crossing over there is again independant assortment and more genetic variation.

44
Q

Describe Anaphase 2

A

Anaphase 2 results in the chromatids of each chromosome being pulled apart, like in mitosis.

45
Q

Define the term “differentiated“

A

Specialised cells that perform a specific function.

46
Q

What is the head of a sperm cell called and what does it do?

A

An acrosome, it contains digestive enzymes to break down the protective layers around the cell.

47
Q

Define an organ

A

A collection of tissues that are adapated to perform a specific function in an organism.

48
Q

Define an organ system

A

A system of organs that work together to perform a major function, like digestion.

49
Q

What is the name for an undifferentiated cell?

A

Stem cells.

50
Q

Define stem cell potency

A

The ability of a stem cell to differentiate into different cell types.

51
Q

Define totipotency in stem cells.

A

Cells can differentiate into any type of cell. Present in the first 8 or 16 divisions of the zygote.

52
Q

Define pluripotency.

A

Can form all four tissue types but not whole organisms, present in early embryos.

53
Q

Define multipotency.

A

Can only form a range of cells within a type of tissue. Eg, haemeotopic stem cells.

54
Q

How many blood cells does the body produce per day?

A

Three billion erythrocytes per kilogram of body mass.

55
Q

What is the name of the mass of cells after early development of the embryo?

A

A blastocyst.

56
Q

What is an apical meristem?

A

Meristem found at the tips of roots and shoots.

57
Q

Why do some people argue against the use of stem cells? (Two reasons)

A
  1. People believe that life begins at conception
  2. The removal of embryonic stem cells often destroys the embryo
58
Q

Give a list of 3 or more diseases that can be resolved using stem cells.

A

Heart disease, type 1 diabetes, parkinsons, alzheimers, macular degeneration (blindness in the elderly), birth defects, and spinal injuries.

Module 2- Biological Basics (6 decks)

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