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Bioglogy > Cell Biology- Paper 1 > Flashcards

Cell Biology- Paper 1 Flashcards

1
Q

How to find the Length of a Scale Bar? 2

A

1) diagram of a cell observed under a microscope, include a scale bar.

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2
Q

How work out the size of a single cell? 5

A

1)plastic ruler microscope slide.
2) Select the objective lens that gives an overall magnification of x 100.
3) Adjust focus to get a clear image of the cells.
4) ruler so that the cells are lined up along 1 mm. count the number of cells along 1 mm sample.
5) 1 mm = 1000 um. length of a single cell in um, divide 1000 um by the number of cells in the sample.

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3
Q

Rate of reaction formula for how much something changes over time?

A

Rate of reaction= change/time

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4
Q

Investigation of the effect of pH on enzyme activity? (10)

A

1) Bunsen burner, heatproof mat, tripod gauze.
2) beaker of water on gauze till 35°C.
3) two drops of iodine solution into each spot of a spotting tile.
4)Add 2 cm3 of amylase enzyme solution test tube.
5)Place 2 cm3 of starch solution into the same tube.
6)add 1 cm3 of pH solution to the tube.
7)Mix the solution place it into the beaker of water on the Bunsen burner.
8)Use a pipette few drops of solution every 20 seconds from test tube different well of the spotting tile.
9)Repeat until iodine solution stops turning black.
10)Record the time this takes.
Repeat with different pH solutions.

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5
Q

Investigating the effect of pH on enzyme activity:
what enzymes are used and what does it break down?
What colours does iodine go to?

A

1)amylase break down starch to maltose
2)detect starch using iodine solution->
brown-orange-> blue black

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6
Q

How to grow bacteria in a lab? (5) (what temperature and why?)

A
  1. Bacterial cultures in a culture, medium that contains nutrients, minerals, and vitamins to grow
  2. Culture, medium can be a nutrient, broth, solution, or solid, Agard Charli
  3. Bacteria grown in Agra plates form visible colonies on the surface
  4. cultures at school are kept not above 25c because harmful pathogens can grow above.
  5. industrial condition, cultures incubate at higher temperatures to grow a lot faster.
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7
Q

How do prokaryoticis divide and reproduce?

A

binary fission

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8
Q

Process of binary fission?

A
  1. Circular DNA and plasmids replicate
  2. cells gets bigger and circular DNA. Strands move to opposite poles of the cell.
  3. Cytoplasm begins to divide a new cell wall and cell membrane begins to form.
  4. Cytoplasm divides and two daughter cells are produced. Each daughter cell has one copy of circular DNA variable copies of the amount of plasmids.
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9
Q

Bacteria conditions (2) and why?

A

.Warm environment and lots of nutrients
.Unfavourable conditions, stop dividing and die

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10
Q

Finding a number of bacteria population?

A

. Translate hours to minutes
.minutes/mean division time= divisons^2= cell population

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11
Q

Growth and DNA replication process? (Cell cycle)

A
  1. Before it divides the cell grow increase the amount of subcellular structures
  2. Duplicated DNA so there’s one copy for each new cell do you know is copied and each chromosome is the exact duplicate of the other
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12
Q

The mitosis part of the growth and DNA replication? (Cell cycle)?

A
  1. DNA is copied. cell is ready for mitosis, chromosomes lineup centre cell fibres, pull them apart, two copies each chromosomes opposite ends
  2. cell Membrane from around each of the set of chromosomes become nuclei of the two cells nucleus divides.
  3. lastly, cytoplasm, cell membrane divide cell two daughters, same DNA and identical
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13
Q

Gas exchange in plants?
What do the stomata do that helps prevent…?

A
  1. Carbon dioxide diffuses into air spaces and defuses into cells. Photosynthesis
  2. Underneath leaf exchange surface=stomata-> carbon dioxide diffuse through
  3. Oxygen produced in photosynthesis + water vapour also defuses out of the stomata
  4. size, stomata, controlled by guard cells close if plant is losing water faster than being replaced by the roots
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14
Q

Adaptions for gas exchange in plants? 2

A

Flattened shape of leave increases area of exchange surface
Walls of cells, another exchange surface air spaces inside leave increase area CO2 going into the cells

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15
Q

Why does water vapour diffuse out? 2

A

1-It evaporates from the cells inside leaf, escapes by diffusion,
2-because water concentration in leaf high and low outside

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16
Q

Gas exchange using gills?

A
  1. Water containing oxygen enters through the mouth passes through the girls and CO2 defuses from the blood in the girls out from the blood to the water.
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17
Q

Adaptions for fish gas exchange? 3

A

1.Gill fragments=lots of tiny lamellae increases surface area
2.lamellae=lots of blood capillaries, increase diffusion
3.thin surface layer of cells short diffusion path

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18
Q

How do lamella work?

A
  1. Blood flows lamella One Direction and water moves opposite= large concentration gradient between water blood
  2. Concentration of oxygen and water increases when blood has too little oxygen defuses from the water to the blood.
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19
Q

What is the process of catalystation?

A
  1. Enzyme active site has a unique shape that fits the substrate involved in a reaction only a specific reaction.
  2. And induced fit is the active site changes a little as the substrate binds to it.
  3. After the reaction is catalysed, the products are released.
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20
Q

Temperature and pH affect on enzymes?

A

Temperature changes the rate of the reaction
-Too hot in the bond, holding the enzyme to get a break an active site denatures
-Too cold, and it’ll be too slow
-All enzymes have an optimum temperature

-The pH intensifies with bonds, holding enzymes together, changes, shape, and denatured
-Common optimum pH is seven neutral

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21
Q

How to calculate the rate of a reaction?

A

Rate= 1000/time (s)
.measure something that changes over time. Calculate the rate of the reaction by dividing the amount it has changed by the time taken.

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22
Q

Exchange process in lungs?

A

1.Job= transfer oxygen into the blood and remove waste CO2
2. Contains millions of alveoli where gas exchange happen
3. Alveoli specialised to max, diffusion of CO2 and O2.

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23
Q

How is alveoli specialised to maximise diffusion of CO2 and oxygen?

A

. Large surface area= diffuse faster
. Moist lining= dissolving, gases
. Thin walls= faster, diffusion
. good blood supply= not far distance

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24
Q

How does exchange work in the villi (digestive system)?

A
  1. Small intestine covered in millions of villi.
  2. Increases surface area digested food, absorbed quickly into blood.
  3. single layer of surface cells a very good blood supply quickly absorbed
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25
Q

Why are people again stem cell research? 6

A
  1. Ethical issues of human embryos shouldn’t be experimented as it’s a human life.
  2. Some think existing life is more important.
  3. Embryos used can be used in research would’ve been destroyed from fertility clinics.
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26
Q

Stem cells produce identical plants how?

A
  1. Plants stem cells are in meristems where the growth occurs
  2. Meristem tissue can differentiate into any type of plant cell.
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27
Q

What can stem cells be used for in plants? (3)

A
  • more clones quickly and cheaply
    -Grow more plants, rare species
    -Grow crops of identical plants that have designed features for farmers
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28
Q

What is specialisation?

A

Cells differentiate (differentiation) to carry out different functions

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29
Q

Process of specialisation?

A
  1. Differentiation process cell changes to become specialised for its job
  2. As the change= different subcellular structures= different cell types= specific functions
  3. Occurs as organisms develop animal cells lose disability at an early stage after specialisation plants never lose this ability.
  4. Mainly used for repairing and placing cells.
  5. Undifferentiated cells.= stem cells
30
Q

Sperm cell specialisation and adaptions?

A

Function: male DNA -> female DNS Specialised= reproduction
Adaptions: long tail, streamlined head helps swim to the egg, a lot of mitochondria= energy, enzymes in head, digest, egg cell membrane

31
Q

Nerve cells, specialisation and adaptions?

A

Function: carry electrical signals from one to another. Specialised: rapid signalling.
Adaptions:
Large surface area helps, carry signals, long distances , France connections at the end to connect to others= network

32
Q

Muscle cell specialisation and adaptions?

A

Function= contract quickly specialised: contract and relax
Adaption:
Long surface area more space to contract , lots of mitochondria= energy needed for contraction

33
Q

Root hair cells, specialisation and adaptions?

A

Function= absorb mineral ions and water specialisation= absorbs water and mineral ions
Adaptions:
Larger surface area and longer has better at absorbing

34
Q

Eukaryotic?

A

Complex include animal and plant cells

35
Q

Prokaryotic and their size?

A

-Smaller simple includes bacteria and single celled

36
Q

Animal subcellular structures 5?

A

.Nucleus (genetic material controls the cell)
.Cytoplasm. (Gel like chemical reaction contains a enzymes)
.cell membrane (holds together and controls what goes in and out)
.Mitochondria (aerobic respiration and transfer energy)
.Ribozymes. (Protein, synthesis.)

37
Q

Plant subcellular structures 5(general) and 4(similar)?

A

animal cell similar: cytoplasm, cell membrane, mitochondria ribosomes
.rigid cell wall (cellulose support and strengthen)
.permanent vacuole (cell, sap/sugar, salt, and strength)
.Chloroplast. (Photosynthesis occurs for food contains chlorophyll, absorbs, light needed for photosynthesis)
.

38
Q

Bacteria subcellular structures 5?
What are two things that bacteria don’t have?

A

1)
.Cell membrane
.cell wall
.cytoplasm
.Singular strands of DNA float, free
.Plasmids a ring of DNA.

2)no chloroplast or mitochondria

39
Q

How do Light microscope work?
What can you see?

A

Method: light and lenses to focus and magnify it
Can see: individual cells and large-scale subcellular structures

40
Q

Electron microscope method, and 2 benefits?
what do you see through electron microscope?

A

-Uses: electrons, instead of light
-benefits: high magnification, high resolution (ability to distinguish between two different points sharper)
-Can see: smaller things, detail, internal structure of mitochondria, subcellular, ribosomes, plasmids

41
Q

Formula for magnification?

A

Magnification= image size/real size

42
Q

Converting between micro meters (um) and millimetres (mm)?

A

Divided by 1000 each time

43
Q

How to prepare a slide: onion cell? 5

A

Microscope slide= specimen mounted
1. Had a drop of water onto the middle of the clean slide.
2. Cut up an onion and separate into layers, using tweezers. Peel off some epidermal tissue from bottom layers.
3. Tweezers, please epidermal tissue into water on the slide.
4. As a drop of iodine, solution stain and highlight objects.
5. Place cover slip on top stand cover slip, upright, carefully tilt so no air bubbles.

44
Q

Why do you not want air bubbles?

A

Obstructed view of the specimen, tilt and lower at an angle

45
Q

How to use a light microscope? 5 steps

A
  1. Clip the slides you’ve prepared onto the stage.
  2. Select the lowest powered objective lens. Lowest magnification.
  3. Coarse adjustment knob to move the stage up below objective lens
  4. Look down eyepiece course. Adjustment knob to move the stage down until the image is roughly in focus
    5.adjust the focus with fine adjustment knob until you get a clear image
46
Q

Label the diagram of the microscope?

A
47
Q

How to draw observations of microscopes? 4

A
  1. Drawing using a pencil and a sharp point.
  2. Clear unbroken lines.
  3. No colouring or shading.
  4. Label important features of subcellular straight uncrossed lines.
48
Q

Exchanging substances in organisms?

A

Take in get rid of waste products by diffusion e.g. oxygen and CO2
Based on surface area to volume ratio

49
Q

Comparing surface area to volume ratios?

A

Ratio: how big value is compared to
. Larger organisms have a smaller surface area to volume
. Small organisms have a larger surface area to volume

50
Q

Process of calculating surface area to volume ratio?

A

.SA:
Area=lengthx width
. workout each side, then add together.
V:
Length x width x height

Then ratio

51
Q

How to exchange substances in single celled organisms?

A

1)Gasses and dissolved substances diffuse directly in and out of the cells and across the cell membrane.
2)larger surface area to volume ratio=enough substances exchanged across a membrane to supply the volume of the cell

52
Q

How does Exchanges substances work in multicellular organisms? 2

A

-Smaller surface area to volume ratio not enough substances diffuse from outside to inside for volume,
-exchange surface for efficient, diffusion

53
Q

Adaptions for exchange surface areas? 4 (general)

A

. Thin membrane=short distance to the fuse.
. Large surface area= lots of substances diffuse out at once
. Lots of blood vessels= short diffusion path
. Gas exchange surfaces= ventilated air to move in and out (alveoli)

54
Q

What is diffusion?

A

Gradual movement of particles from a high to low concentration happens in solutions and in gas

55
Q

A large concentration gradient and higher temperature causes what in terms of diffusion?

A

.Faster diffusion rate
.more energy due to heat

56
Q

Diffusion of substances in the body?

A

. only small molecules can diffuse through the cell membrane like oxygen glucose and amino acids.
. Big molecules like proteins and starch can’t fit through the cell membrane.
. high to low concentration gradient a lot more on one side of the membrane, a more net overall movement from that side.

57
Q

What is osmosis?

A

Movement of water molecules across a partially permeable membrane from a region of higher water concentration to lower water concentration

58
Q

Partially permeable membrane?

A

Membrane with very small holes in it only tiny molecules can pass through them

59
Q

Sugar, solution and plant tissue variables and errors how to reduce?

A

Dependent= chip mass
Control= volume a solution, temperature and time
Independent= concentration of sugar solution
Error=
.potato is not fully dried excess water and higher mass
.Water evaporated from beakers concentration of sugar solutions change.
Reduce=
Heating experiment in calculating mean percentages for each change of concentration

60
Q

Process of active transport?

A

Substances are absorbed across concentration gradient low to high

61
Q

How does Active transport in root hairs and what does it need?

A

-Active transport allows the plant minerals from a very dilute solution against a concentration gradient= essential for growth
-Active transport need energy from respiration.

62
Q

Active transport in the gut?

A

. Lower concentration gradient of nutrients in the gut high concentration in the blood.

  1. Lower concentration of nutrients in the gut bloods concentration gradient is the wrong way.
  2. Active transport allows nutrients to be taken into the blood glucose can be taken into the bloodstream even when concentration is higher, then transported to cells what is used for respiration
63
Q

Water and sucrose solution osmosis process? 4

A
  1. What are molecules pass both ways through the membrane because water molecules move about randomly
  2. Because there’s more water molecules on one side than the other, there’s a steady net flow of water into the region of fewer water molecules (into stronger, sugar solution)
  3. The strongest sugar solution gets more die, loot, water acts, like it’s trying to even up the concentration on either side of the membrane.
  4. Passive movement of water particles from higher concentration to low concentration.
    .sucrose Cannot move across a partially permeable membrane because it is too big
64
Q

How sugar solutions affect plant tissue? 4

A
  1. Cut potato into identical cylinders, some beakers with different sugar solutions, one with pure water, one with very concentrated sugar solution. (1 mol dm3) then few in between (0.2 mol dm3, 0.4 0.6)
  2. Measure mass of the potato, then leave one cylinder in each speaker for 24 hours.
  3. Take out and dry, the paper towel measure the mass again.
  4. Drawn in water=mass increases Water drawn out= mass decreases
    Work out percentage change, then graphs
65
Q

Phloem 4 and xylem 6 specillastion and function?

A

Xylem=
1.Lose end walls continuous, hollow tube.
2.strengthened chemical lignin
3.cells not alive
4.not require energy

Phloem=
1.translocation.
2..living cells
3.Sieve tubes - specialised for transport, no nuclei.
4.requires energy.
5.companion cells attached each sieve tube provide energy.
6.both directions

66
Q

What are the chromosomes? What are their jobs? How many are there? Where are they?

A

. nucleus contains genetic material which are chromosomes
What:chromosomes curl up in length of DNA molecules
Job:Chromosomes carry genes which controls the development of characteris
How:Body cells have two copies of chromazones is 23 per pair and total of 46. One from the mother to the father.

67
Q

Processes of cell cycle?

A
  1. Body cells in multicellular organisms, divide= new cells
  2. And cells divide by mitosis.
  3. Multicellular organisms use mitosis to grow or replace cells been damaged
  4. End of cell cycle results in two new cells identical to the original cell the same number of chromosomes
68
Q

Red blood cells, function and adaptions?

A

Job: carry oxygen from the lungs to all cells in the body
Adaptions:
.biconcave disc= large surface area absorbing oxygen
. No nucleus= more room to carry oxygen.
. Contains pigment haemoglobin. Find two oxygen to form Oxyhaemoglobin. Lungs then split in body cells= release oxygen

69
Q

White blood cells, function and adaptions?

A

Phagocytes= engulf microsomes
Lymphocytes=produce antibodies and antitoxins neutralise toxins
.have a nucleus

70
Q

Platelets function and adaptions?

A

Job: plot a route and stop blood from spilling out and stops micro organisms from getting in
.Small fragments cells
.no nucleus

71
Q

Plasma function and adaptions?

A

Job: carries everything around (red white blood cells and platelets)
. Nutrients like amino acids: soluble products of digestion, which are absorbed from the gut and taken to the cells of the body
. CO2 organs to lungs
.urea, liver to the kidneys.
. Hormones proteins and antibodies and antitoxins.

72
Q

How to calculate the number bacteria divided?

A

2^n
n=number of rounds of division

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