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CDA'S Flashcards

1
Q

Why did the British army largely accept prostitution as a ‘necessary evil’?

A

The British army didn’t allow non-commissioned soldiers to be married, believing that married men would be more reluctant to risk their lives in combat

Homosexual acts were also illegal

HENCE, prostitution was regarded as a necessary evil to fulfil mens urges

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2
Q

What did reporting on the crimean war reveal? What did this lead to?

A

Reporting on the crimean war highlighted a high degree of venereal disease among the troops

This hence led to annual reports on the health of the army to be conducted

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3
Q

What evidence is there of venereal disease being rife in the military? What was the effect of this?

A

By 1964, Venereal diseases accounted for 1/3 sick cases in the army.

The war office and admiralty were concerned that the efficiency of the army and Navy was being damaged

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4
Q

When were compulsory medical examinations of soldiers abandoned? Why?

A

-In 1859 compulsory medical examinations of soldiers were abandoned

-Men were hostile to such intimate investigations; the issue had to be addressed another way

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5
Q

What were people aware of following the crimean war?

A

Despite experiencing an extended period of peace following the crimean war, people were again aware of the need for a fully fit army

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6
Q

What sub-section of the military was Venereal disease more common?

A

The Navy - Ships were often incapable of sailing for weeks because of the high rate of infection among sailors

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7
Q

What did estimated put the number of prostitutes in London at?

A

30,000-50,000

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8
Q

What evidence is there that General diseases such as Syphilis and Gonorrhoea were precipitating social ramifications?

A

20% of child admissions at the royal free had syphilis (from mother to child)

Around 7% of the sick poor had general diseases

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9
Q

What was the effect of the social turmoil brought on by VD’s?

A

It emphasised the need for government intervention

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10
Q

How was the conviction that gov intervention was needed to solve the CDA’s substantiated?

A

Due to the success of the 1848 Public health act, which established a general board of health, as well as the factory acts

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11
Q

When was the Committee of Inquiry established? Why?

A

1862

In attempt to reduce the spread of general disease

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12
Q

When was the Committee of Inquiry established? Why?

A

1862

In attempt to reduce the spread of general disease

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13
Q

What was the liberal solution presented at the 1862 Committee of Inquiry?

A

The liberal solution stipulated that there should be improved hospital care, penalties for men lying about infection, greater sanitation in barracks and increased leisure activities.

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14
Q

Which individuals were associated with the liberal solution put forward in the committee of inquiry?

A

William Acton and Florence Nightingale

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15
Q

Who presented the conservative solution? What did the conservative solution stipulate at the the 1862 Committee of Inquiry?

A

Sir John Liddell (Director general of the naval medical department)

He called for the regulation of prostitutes like in Hong Kong and India, with compulsory medical examinations by British army doctors

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16
Q

Which individual arguable catalysed an increased desire for government intervention in the passing of the CDA’s?

A

William Acton, an established London surgeon specialising in urinary and genital organs

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17
Q

What was the book published by Acton called? What did it do?

A

‘Prostitution’ (1857) highlighted the medical and moral ramifications of prostitution. Acton claimed:

-Charity and moral support hadn’t solved the problems and that there was a need for the medical profession to deal with the disease via examinations

-His assertions convinced many in the medical profession that government intervention was essential to prevent the spread of VD’s

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18
Q

What were moral attitudes towards prostitution?

A

Although prostitution was considered by many as a necessary evil, it defied 19th century notions of morality.

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19
Q

What was the moral role of women?

A

Women were supposed to be ‘moral guardians’, characterised by the notion of separate spheres, and thus although sexual immorality was acceptable for men, it was not for women

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20
Q

How was there a double standard regarding prostitution in 19th century Britain?

A

Many saw it as a ‘necessary evil’ to fulfil mens natural sex drives that couldn’t always be satisfied in marriage

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21
Q

How was prostitution condemned on religious grounds?

A

Evangelical christians condemned the use of prostitutes, claiming it desecrated the holy union of marriage

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22
Q

What did many men believe about prostitution?

A

Many men believed that illicit commercial sex was inescapable, it just needed to be contained and regulated

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23
Q

What was the attitude of the authorities to women?

A

The government and military authorities had no concern for Women’s welfare, and were thus driven to provide safe sex for men

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24
Q

How did gender roles develop in the 19th century?

A

The 19th century saw gender roles become more clearly defined than any point in history.

Fashion began to mirror the domesticated role of women with items like corsets and hoop skirts sexualising women

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25
What was the general consensus about why women wanted marriage? How did this affect attitudes towards prostitution?
There remained an entrenched notion that women desired marriage not for sexual or emotional reasons, but to bare children This accentuated harshness towards prostitutes who defied victorian stereotypes of women as mothers
26
What did acton attempt to do regarding moral attitudes surrounding prostitution?
He wanted to subvert the notion that a prostitute was doomed to inevitable ruin - He believed it was a temporary solution & by the state protecting their health, they could be given a chance to reform after sin
27
What did the ideology of separate spheres say?
Women were considered physically weaker yet morally superior to men, which meant they were suited to a domestic sphere
28
How did the social ramifications of VD affect mothers?
Mothers were largely blamed for the appalling death rates among infants
29
What were the terms of the 1864 CDA?
-The act applied to specific named naval ports and garrison towns. It covered 11 military stations; garrisons and seaports -It allowed police to arrest women on the street if they were suspected of being a 'common prostitute', to register them & ensure they attend medical exams bu army or naval surgeons -If a women was infected with a VD they could be detained for up to 3 months for treatment or until they were cured in a lock hospital -If a women refused, she could be thrown into prison after a trial in which she had to prove she was virtuous
30
What were the terms of the 1866 CDA?
-The 1866 act extended 1864 so that more military towns were covered -It also stipulated that any prostitute within 10 miles of a naval port/ garrison town had to undergo regular examination- compulsory examinations every 3 months for identified prostitutes was based on evidence of a single policemen before a magistrate
31
What were the terms of the 1869 CDA?
-Extended regulation to all garrison towns -Allowing for 5 days detention prior to examination without trial -Established 18 protected districts -It was legal for prostitutes to be detained in a lock hospital for up to a year/ 9 months and subject to fortnightly inspection
32
What evidence is there of the medical authorities defending the acts?
Elizabeth Garrett Anderson & Acton believed reducing VD was the states moral duty Anderson believed that the CDA's would relieve physical suffering but checks wouldn't prevent infection
33
when were the ramifications of the acts revealed?
in the 1871 royal commission
34
What did the 1871 royal commission reveal about a positive change?
It revelled that the legislation improved conditions for prostitutes in protected areas. Infected Women sometimes voluntarily travelled to protected regions to receive free medical treatment
35
What was the effect of frequent checks and timely treatment?
It improved the health of prostitutes and reduced the cases of premature death by Venereal disease
36
What reduction did the act bring about?
The CDA's led to a reduction in scabies- a condition which caused constant scratching around the anal and genital regions. Scabies caused great discomfort and treatment of this infection was very popular among prostitutes
37
What evidence is there that the CDA's reduced hospital admission rates in the army?
The act reduces hospital admissions for syphilis in the army. In protected areas 37/1000 soldiers were hospitalised with disease, down from 194/1000 in unprotected areas
38
What can discredit the evidence demonstrating improvements brought about by the CDA's?
Most of the evidence about the impact of the acts came from the 1871 royal commission which only interviewed 'respectable' witnesses like Anglican ministers and doctors, not the women themselves
39
How did the CDA's make it harder in some cases for women to leave prostitution?
Some Women's rescue organisations refused to care for women from government hospitals as they opposed the acts
40
What was the effect of certificates given to VD-Free prostitutes?
They became valuable assets, allowing prostitutes to charge more
41
Why else were improvements in health limited?
Still no checks on men within the armed forces. This meant disease was contained rather than eradicated
42
What happened to many innocent women as a result of the CDA's?
Many innocent women were falsely accused- Mary Percy, a singer, who was falsely accused of being a prostitute killed herself in 1875 due to the damage to her reputation that occurred
43
How were Treatment of VD's hampered by poor medical knowledge?
Mercury, for example was commonly used as a treatment for syphilis causing serious side effects such as the loss of teeth, kidney failure and sometimes even death
44
How was the speculum characterised?
"Instrumental rape"
45
How were the terms of the 1869 CDA detrimental to women?
They meant that women could be held in lock hospitals for up to a year. These women were seen as fallen women who had no moral decency, and were often treated severely
46
What can challenge the negative ramifications brought about by the acts?
In this time, particularly after 1869, opposition began to emerge that was aimed at mitigating the detrimental effects of these legislations YET still limited
47
What else did the CDA's lead to?
A fundamental change in attitudes towards the corrupt nature of the acts
48
Why were public concerns about the legislation raised?
1869 extended regulation beyond protected areas to the civilian population. The threat of national imposition raised public concerns
49
What was the reaction of the police to the legislation?
Unenthusiastic to implement the law; they largely felt it was an unnecessary distraction from serious crimes. Likewise, social intervention damaged the relations between prostitutes and local communities
50
What was there a growing feeling of in Britain?
That the prostitutes were victims of the acts, which appeared to be placing all the blame on women for the problems of male sexuality & vice
51
What were the acts increasingly seen as?
Immoral & unfair, with the acts ironically appearing to legalise prostitution
52
What appeared to discredit the acts?
The fact that prostitution was commonly a part time means of overcoming economic downturn and the threat of mistaken identity
53
What evidence is there that the acts didn't bring about a change in attitudes towards women?
The extension of the CDA's was supported by medical men and civil authorities eg 1867 the Harveian society of London urged further state intervention
54
Which doctors conducted a study that delegitimised the acts on pragmatic grounds? What did the study say?
Doctor Charles Routh & Professor Henry Lee connected increased incidence to men feeling it was safer to visit prostitutes after compulsory checks were introduces
55
How did medical evidence undermine the success of the CDA, urging pragmatic opposition?
Medical evidence elucidate that in some key areas, the incidence of VD was increasing. Likewise treatment was hampered by poor medical knowledge (eg mercury for syphilis)
56
How did new innovate medical knowledge cultivate medical opposition to the acts?
In 1861, Louis Pasteur published his germ theory, arguing that microbes caused decay, not the other way around. This increasingly popularised discovery began to challenge the efficacy of forced inspection
57
How does one of the LNA's 8 declarations elucidate pragmatic opposition to the CDA's?
"The acts would increase disease rather than prevent it"
58
How much did troop numbers decline by? What did an investigation show about this
-Prior to the acts, troop numbers were declining rapidly from approx. 83,00 to 59,000 over the course of 6 years -After a committee on the CDA was formed to investigate in 1879, evidence showed many factors other than VD played a role in this reduction
59
How were there more legal and principled objections to the acts as time progressed?
The law contravened Habeas Corpus and basic rights enshrined since the Magna Carta to do with freedom from arbitrary arrest, requirements for evidence, the right to privacy, and presumption of innocence
60
Why were concerns among the public raised?
the 1869 Act extended regulation beyond protected areas thereby raising concerns among the public as the threat of national imposition became increasingly real
61
What was the response to proposing the extension of the CDA's beyond barrack towns?
It sparked a hostile response
62
What were the LNA's legal objections to the CDA's?
1) The acts had passed through parliament in secrecy 2) The legislation undermined the legal protection formally afforded to men and women 3)The offence of prostitution was clearly undefined
63
What evidence is there of increased opposition to the CDA'S?
In the 1870's over 10,000 petitions with over 2 million signatures were submitted against the acts
64
How can the idea that legal criticisms were the key factor that underpinned opposition be challenged?
Although legal objections certainly were legitimate, and popularised by the LNA as a form of campaign, it was more so moral and pragmatic objections that sparked opposition, as these were more widely understood by the masses
65
How did the Act's appear to legalise prostitution?
By accepting that it couldn't be eradicated eg Dr C. R and Prof. H. L study
66
How did contemporary notions of sexuality reflect the Victorian double standard?
Contemporary notions of sexuality maintained that men had sexual desires whilst pure women were only interested in procreation. YET the CDA's forced the blame on women, accepting prostitution as a sexual necessity for men yet blaming women for the ramifications.
67
How did the double standard precipitate opposition to the CDA's?
The double standard aroused mass public unrest, women were seen as victims rather than conveyors of male vice- Injustice was central to discontent The acts were construed to be so immoral that they arguably radicalised women and triggered a campaign that fundamentally altered politics
68
Which religious groups opposed the CDA's?
Some religious groups, particularly Quakers and methodists, expressed concerns about the inequality between men and women, fearing the acts legitimised immoral male behaviour
69
How many women signed a protest against the acts on the 31 December 1869?
124, this quickly increased to over 2000 (including many quaker and methodist women)
70
What were the LNA's moral and religious objections to the acts evident in their 8 allegations against the CDA's?
1) the Laws unfairly punished one sex for the vice of prostitution which was largely the fault of men 2) The acts made the path to evil easier for men 3) The implementation of the acts was cruel and degrading, with medical examinations brutalising women
71
What can be leaders of the LNA be described as?
Leaders were from affluent m/c backgrounds who felt an obligation to represent and defend working women
72
Where was the women's manifesto published? What was the circulation?
The Daily news Circulation of 150,000
73
Together with NARCDA, how many meetings and petitions were the LNA responsible for?
900 public meetings & over 18,000 petitions containing over 2.5 million signatures
74
What was the LNA Newspaper? What did it publish in 1875?
The Shield The death of Ms Percy
75
What evidence is there of the LNA successfully targeting elections?
in 1870 repeal campaigners ruthlessly targeted stork for his actions in Malta, placing so much pressure on him he withdrew his candidacy on the day of the election (Newark) YET success was short-lived storks successfully ran in 1871 for Colchester
76
What happened to Childers in 1872?
In 1872 Childers sought re-election in pontefract yet was targeted by the LNA due to his zealous support of the CDA's. Although the LNA's organised demonstration was met with hostility and Childers did return to parliament, this was with a significantly reduced majority
77
What can be said about the LNA tactic of influencing elections?
The practice of manipulating public sympathy and influencing the election of MP's was powerful, yet its influence was FRAGILE. The problem was that protestors were almost entirely dependant on Liberal candidates and were unable to influence conservative MP's. This position was made clear when Disraeli's conservative party won the 1874 General election THUS losing lib MP's who were sympathetic
78
How did the LNA draw attention to women mistaken for prostitutes?
Butler appreciated the publicity value of a story such as Ms Percys, noting how every cause requires martyrs; published in the shield YET Delegitimised by actions of Elizabeth holt who claimed to be wrongfully held in Maidstone jail despite being a prostitute
79
How did the LNA help prostitutes?
-'Siege of Devonport' (1870) campaigners worked with prostitutes resisting medical examinations and aided with legal and financial support for those sent to court YET expensive campaign and failed by 1871
80
What was a noticeable failure of the LNA?
Its inability to mobilise working class women against the acts
81
What can be said about the significance of the LNA in the repeal of the CDA's?
-Far more effective than the National association- laid the groundwork for opposition YET failed to galvanise parliamentary support -Convinced much of society that the CDA's were immoral and unjustifiable -Popular pressure needed to be transformed into political influence in order for it to be effective
82
Why did Elizabeth Wolstenholme appoint Butler to lead the LNA?
Since for a group of women in victorian society to speak publicly against government policy was radical, but for it to concern prostitution would leave deal protestors subject to charges of impropriety. Leadership hence had to be impeccable
83
How did Butlers leadership maintain impeccable morality?
she was married to an Anglican Church minister, charismatic, strong-willed and was a devout christian with string evangelical convictions Importantly- her leadership was driven out of maternal love since her daughter died aged 6
84
Of the national LNA leaders, how many were a credible choice?
of the 33 National LNA leaders, 12 were single, 6 were widowed and over 20 were childless; the LNA couldn't risk scandalous actions
85
What was recalled about Butler following the 1871 royal commission?
One of its members, Peter Rylands, recalled that while he didn't agree with all of Butlers opinions, it was clear that "the spirit of God was there" (Thus demonstrating the success of Butler in cultivating an image of herself where she was aligned with St Catherine of Sienna)
86
What can be said about Butlers talents?
She was a talented and gifted speaker, capturing imagination and inspiring deep loyalty
87
How many miles did Butler travel in 1870?
3700 miles, speaking at 99 meetings
88
What did Butler found in 1873?
The Social Purity alliance, which promoted the view that female morality would redeem a political system corrupted by male vice in 1885 the SPA successfully campaigned to have the age of consent raised to 16
89
How was Butler's appearance at the 1871 Royal commission undermined?
Butlers condemnation of the degrading effects of the Acts in Devonport and Portsmouth undermined after admitting she had no first hand knowledge of prostitution in these protected areas
90
How else was Butlers credibility undermined?
At a later select committee inquiry in 1881, she revealed she hadn't been to a protected district since Canterbury in 1873
91
How did Butler arguably hold back reform?
In 1871 at the RC, John Stuart mill proposed a system of voluntary examinations in private clinics YET Butler blocked the compromise
92
Despite Butlers lack of an organisational capacity, what was she crucial in?
Garnering the support of w/c men who she deemed easier to manage, while simultaneously giving the LNA a sense of direction YET lacked organisational skills which arguable led to failure in garnering the support of the military and medical elites
93
When was the National Association for the Repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts established? What was it?
-1869 -m/c male movement; initial act opposed extension of the acts in the north, but it later campaigned for removal -Modest success in lobbying parliament YET characterised by Wilson as "do-nothings"
94
When did Nationwide Grassroots movements take root? Give examples
-1872-3: regional electoral leagues were established for repeal during parliamentary and local elections: -Northern counties league (Under Henry Wilson) -Midlands electoral league
95
Who was Henry Wilson?
Wilson was a brilliant organiser who cultivated the support of the liberal party at a national level; Wilson and regional leagues helped to create a political committee of liberal MP's to push for repeal in parliament
96
What did the electoral leagues do?
challenged liberal candidates at by-elections eg opposed Henry storks in Colchester in 1871 YET arguable underpinned success of conservatives
97
How did Wilson fragment the movement?
His belief that reform was not especially a problem for women, but for society, was resented by Butler + Disraeli victory 1874
98
How can you contextualise the actions of James Stansfeld?
He transformed the campaign from a moral venture into a pragmatic one
99
What was the role of stansfeld?
Following 1874, he was relieved from his responsibilities as a cabinet minister allowing him to dedicate his full efforts to repeal. Prior to 1874, while Butler reshaped LNA policy, Stansfeld reshaped to movement into a more effective political pressure group
100
What evidence is there Stansfeld approached the issue of repeal on a pragmatic basis?
In 1875 he encouraged the formation of the National Medical Association to enlist the support of doctors to campaign against the acts using statistics
101
What evidence is there that the 1875 NMA successfully influenced gov policy?
In 1879 the gov agreed to establish a committee of inquiry which would gather evidence until 1882
102
What did Stansfeld introduce in parliament?
A motion in the House of Commons that 'The House dissaproves of the compulsory examination of women under the CDA's'
103
Who was Stansfeld able to garner the support of?
The medical elite and m/c + was able to exert significant influence over parliament given his position as a liberal MP + Negotiates with Gladstone when libs return to power in 1880 offering support for Irish home rule in return for the repeal of the CDA's
104
Did Stansfel polarise the movement?
To an extent since Butler felt threatened by his considerable influence
105
When were the CDA's finally repealed?
1886

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