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3rd year 2024 > cc1 CARBO LAB MIDTERM WEEK2 > Flashcards

cc1 CARBO LAB MIDTERM WEEK2 Flashcards

1
Q
  • Major food and energy source of the body
  • The most abundant biomolecules on earth
  • Major constituents of physiologic systems
A

Glycans

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2
Q
  • Are needed for specific cellular functions
  • Are hydrophilic molecules
A

Carbohydrate

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3
Q
  • Most carbohydrates have the general
    formula of
A

(CH2O)

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4
Q

-If the carbonyl group is located at one end of the sugar
-it forms an aldehyde group and is known as an

A

Aldose

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4
Q

aldoses are reducing
compounds, and are sometimes known as

A

reducing sugars

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5
Q

If the carbonyl group is located at an
internal position, the sugar is a

A

ketose

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5
Q

Sugar based on number of carbon

A

● Trioses
● Tetroses
● Pentoses
● Hexoses
● Heptoses
● Nonoses

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5
Q

This allows for various spatial arrangements around each asymmetric carbon forming molecules

A

stereoisomers

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6
Q

Sugars are called _________- which is
derived from the greek word __________

A

-Saccharide
-Sakcharon

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7
Q
  • Simple sugars, consist of a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit
  • Most have a sweet taste
  • freely soluble in water but insoluble in
    non-polar solvents
  • Composed of backbone of several carbon
    atoms
A

Monosaccharides

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8
Q
  • Two monosaccharides joined covalently by
    an O-glycosidic bond
  • Serves primarily as readily available
    energy stores
A

Disaccharides

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9
Q
  • Sugars linked to form small chains of about 3-10 sugar units/residues
  • Most are not digested by human enzymes
    -can play an informational role
A

Oligosaccharides

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10
Q

-polymer of sugar units joined by glycosidic bonds
-Most carbohydrates found in nature
-Serve as storage carbohydrates or
provides structural support

A

Polysaccharide

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11
Q

Upon hydrolysis, polysaccharides
will yield more than

A

10 monosaccharides

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12
Q
  • The main storage polysaccharide of animal cells - “animal starch”
  • A branched polymer containing only one
    type of monomer
A

Glycogen

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12
Q

Bank of surplus of energy in plants

A

Starch

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12
Q

A homopolymer of glucose forming an
alpha-glycosidic chain called

A

Glucosan or Glucan

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12
Q

2 types of Polysaccharide

A

● Homopolysaccharide
● Heteropolysaccharide

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13
Q
  • fibrous, tough, water-insoluble substance found in the cell walls of plants
  • also included in diet but cannot be digested
A

Cellulose

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14
Q

centered on the provision & fate of glucose

A

Carbohydrate metabolism

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15
Q

almost identical to salivary but several times powerful

A

alpha-amylase

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15
Q

The most abundant of the absorbed monosaccharides

A

glucose

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16
Q

3 major sources of carbohydrates exist in normal human diet

A

● Sucrose
● Lactose
● Starch

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17
Q

an enzymes hydrolyzes disaccharides and small glucose polymers into monosaccharides

A

Intestinal epithelial cell

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18
Q

Glucose is transported by a ______ mechanism

A

Sodium Cotransporter

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19
Q
  • Sodium combines with a transporter protein
  • will not transport the sodium to the interior of the cell
A

SGLT2

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19
Q

involved in controlling the blood glucose concentrations within a
narrow range

A
  • liver
  • pancreas
    -endocrine glands
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20
Q

Control of blood glucose is under two major hormones

A

-Insulin
-Glucagon Control

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21
Q

reflects a balance between energy intake from ingested food, hepatic glucose production, and peripheral tissue glucose uptake and utilization

A

Glucose homeostasis

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22
Q
  • an exocrine and endocrine gland that controls the regulation of sugar
A

Pancreas

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22
Q

what cell produces insulin

A

B- cell

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23
Q

what cells produces Glucagon

A

Α-cells

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24
Q

in what year insulin was discover

A

1921-1922

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24
Q
  • the primary and only hormone responsible for the entry of glucose into the cell
  • responsible for increasing glucose levels
A

hypoglycemic agent

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25
Q

Who discovered insulin

A

-Frederick Banting
-Charles Best
-John Macleod

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26
Q
  • anabolic and peptide hormone with a
    MW of
A

5800 Daltons

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27
Q

Insulin stimulates:

A

● Glucose uptake
● Formation of glycogen
● Inhibits glucose production
● Increase protein and Triglyceride production
● Promote uptake of ions

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28
Q

Glucose is taken up by the Beta-cells via

A

GLUT2

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29
Q

Glucose is then phosphorylated by

A

glucokinase

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30
Q
  • enter the cell and activates the Ca2+-dependent proteins
A

Calcium ions

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31
Q

3 Main targets of Insulin:

A

-liver
-adipose tissue
-muscles

32
Q

-main target in the fasting state
-insulin stimulates glycolysis and glycogenesis, and lipogenesis
-Suppresses lipolysis and gluconeogenesis

A

Liver

33
Q
  • Insulin stimulates triglyceride synthesis
    from glycerol-3-phosphate
A

Adipose tissue

34
Q
  • Stimulates glucose transport, glucose metabolism, and glycogenesis
  • Increases cellular uptake of amino acids and stimulates protein synthesis
A

Muscle

35
Q
  • Synthesized by Pancreatic Alpha cells
  • With a short half-life of about 5 minutes
A

hyperglycemic agent

35
Q

hormones that increases glucose:

A
  • Cortisol
  • Catecholamines
  • Growth hormone
  • Thyroid hormone
  • Adrenocorticotropic hormone
  • Somatostatin
36
Q

hypoglycemic agent hormone that stimulates:

A
  1. Glucose production
  2. Regulator of hepatic glycogenolysis,
    gluconeogenesis, Ketogenesis, Hepatic
    amino acid turn over
37
Q

Glucose Uptake:

A

-GLUT1
-GLUT2
-GLUT3
-GLUT4
-GLUT5

37
Q

glucose transporter for RBCs

A

-GLUT1

38
Q
  • Major glucose transporter in B-cells of pancreatic islets and hepatocytes
  • “Glucose sensing”
A

-GLUT2

38
Q
  • Glucose transporter of the brain
  • With high concentrations in the hypothalamus, hippocampus, and cortex
A

-GLUT3

39
Q
  • main glucose transporter in the
    cells of skeletal muscles, cardiac muscles,
    adipose tissue
A

-GLUT4

40
Q
  • for absorption of fructose, found
    in the small intestine
A

-GLUT5

41
Q

-most commonly
encountered hyperglycemia
-most common set of disorders of
carbohydrate metabolism

A

Diabetes Mellitus

41
Q

There is an increased blood glucose

A

Hyperglycemia

42
Q
  • “Juvenile-onset Diabetes”,
    Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus”
  • Represents 5-10% of all cases of diabetes
    -Common in the young people ( 9-14 yrs old)
    -Due to an Autoimmune destruction of
    insulin-producing beta cells in the islets of
    langerhans
A

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

42
Q

DM can be due to:

A

● Defect in insulin secretion
● Defect in insulin action
● Increased glucose production

43
Q

which kills islet cells

A

CD8+ cytotoxic
T-lymphocytes

44
Q

which induce
destructive inflammation

A

CD4+ T-cells

45
Q

Pancreatic islets lymphocyte infiltration is termed

A

Insulitis

46
Q

the following markers are
found in 85-90% of individuals with fasting
hyperglycemia:

A

● Islet cell autoantibodies
● Insulin autoantibodies
● Glutamic acid decarboxylase
autoantibodies
● Tyrosine phosphatase IA-2 and
IA-2B autoantibodies
● Zinc transporter 8

47
Q
  • due to an individual’s resistance to insulin
  • Most common type of diabetes (common
    in elders ages 40 above)
  • Not an autoimmune disease
  • glucose tolerance remains near-normal, despite insulin resistance
A

Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

48
Q
  • the following are the risk factors of type 2 DM:
A

● Overweight or obesity
● Lifestyle factors
● First-degree relative with diabetes
● Advance age
● High risk ethnicity
● History of GDM
● Hypertension
● Vascular disease & dyslipidemia
● Prediabetes

49
Q
  • not an absolute deficiency
  • Intensifies DM type 2
A

Relative Insulin Deficiency

50
Q

Hyperglycemia is toxic to beta-cell function and further impairs insulin
secretion

A

Glucose Toxicity

51
Q

Complications of diabetes can be divided into:

A

-Vascular
-Non-vascular

52
Q

Non-vascular:

A
  1. Infections
  2. Skin changes
  3. Hearing loss
53
Q

Vascular:

A
  1. Microvascular
    - Retinopathy
    - Neuropathy
    - Nephropathy
  2. Macrovascular
    - Coronary Heart Disease
    - Peripheral Arterial Disease
    - Cerebrovascular Disease
54
Q

The “3 Polys”

A

-Polyuria
-Polydipsia
-Polyphagia

55
Q
  • excess glucose is thrown in the kidneys. Glucose renal excretion needs
    water excretion
A

Polyuria

56
Q
  • loss of water due to polyuria induces thirst
A

Polydipsia

57
Q
  • reduced glucose introduced to cells lowers energy, thus increasing
    hunger
A

Polyphagia

58
Q
  • defined as glucose intolerance first
    recognized during pregnancy
  • conveys both short and long term
    risk to both mother and offspring
A

Gestational Diabetes

59
Q
  • With increased usage of sugar but low production
  • Due to: Insulin overdose, increased hypoglycemic agent, liver dysfunction
A

Hypoglycemia

60
Q

the following symptoms of hypoglycemia:

A

-Increased hunger -Sweating,
-Nausea
-Vomiting
-Dizziness
-nervousness
-Shaking
-Blurring of speech and sight
-mental confusion

61
Q

can be used for HbA1C or
for self-monitoring of glucose

A

Whole blood

62
Q

most commonly used specimen

A

Serum

63
Q

used to inhibit
glycolysis

A

Sodium Fluoride

64
Q

Chemical Methods

A
  1. Alkaline Copper Reduction Methods
    -Folin Wu Method
    - Nelson Somogyi Method
  2. Alkaline Ferric Reduction Method
  3. Ortho-Toluidine (Dubowski Method)
65
Q

Most accurate redox method and believes
to be a measure of true glucose

A

Nelson Somogyi Method

66
Q

a method to cuprous ions
forming cuprous oxide in hot alkaline solution by glucose

A

Alkaline Copper Reduction Methods

66
Q

Measured calorimetrically and compared with a standard

A

Folin Wu Method

67
Q
  • “Hagedorn Jensen”
  • A titrimetric method
A

Alkaline Ferric Reduction Method

68
Q
  • Most specific non-enzymatic method for
    glucose
  • condenses with the
    aldehyde group of glucose in a hot acetic
    acid solution
A

Ortho-Toluidine (Dubowski Method)

69
Q
  • Reference method
  • Highly accurate and precise but is time
    consuming
A

Hexokinase Method

69
Q

Enzymatic Methods

A
  1. Glucose Oxidase Method
  2. Hexokinase Method
  3. Glucose Dehydrogenase Method
70
Q
  • Highly specific for B-d-glucose
A

Glucose Oxidase Method

71
Q
  • Involves measurement of NADH
    production
A

Glucose Dehydrogenase Method

72
Q

Testings

A

-Fasting Blood Sugar
-Random Blood Sugar
-2 Hours Post Prandial -Blood Sugar
-Glucose Tolerance Test

73
Q
  • Measures blood sugar after 8-10 hours of
    fasting
A

Fasting Blood Sugar

74
Q
  • “Casual blood glucose test”
  • Measured to aid in diagnosis of diabetes
A

Random Blood Sugar

75
Q
  • A variation of this test is using a standardized solution containing 75g of
    glucose
A

2 Hours Post Prandial Blood Sugar

76
Q
  • One of the laboratory’s hallmark in diagnosis of type 1 and type 2 diabetes
  • 3 days before OGTT, individuals should ingest at least 150g/day of
    carbohydrates
    -Test is performed after an overnight fasting of 8-14 hours
A

Glucose Tolerance Test

77
Q
  • Single dose method
A

Janney-Isaacson Method

78
Q

Glucose Loads OGTT load (WHO standard)

A

75 grams

78
Q
  • Double-dose/Divided Oral dose method
A

Exton Rose Method

79
Q

Glycosylated Hemoglobin methods:

A

● Ion-Exchange Chromatography
● Electrophoresis
● Isoelectric Focusing
● Affinity Chromatography
● Immunoassays

80
Q
  • Short term: 2-3 weeks
  • For patients with RBC lifespan problems
A

Fructosamine Test

80
Q
  • Formation of a hemoglobin compound
    produced when glucose reacts with the amino group of hemoglobin
  • glucose molecule attaches non-enzymatically
A

Glycosylated Hemoglobin

81
Q

normal level of Glycosylated Hemoglobin

A

4.5%-8%

82
Q
  • Used to monitor the pancreas
  • Method: Immunometric assay
A

C-peptide Test

3rd year 2024 (4 decks)

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