case studies hazards Flashcards
Haiti Earthquake (2010)
Location & Context
Magnitude: 7.0
Epicenter: 25 km west of Port-au-Prince, Haiti.
Tectonic Setting: Located along the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates (conservative plate margin).
Causes:
The earthquake was triggered by the slippage along the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden Fault, where stress had accumulated over a long period. The earthquake occurred at a shallow depth of around 13 km, resulting in stronger shaking on the surface.
Impacts:
Social: 230,000 deaths, 300,000 injuries, and 1.5 million people made homeless.
Economic: The country faced $14 billion in damages, with a significant impact on GDP, which declined by 5.1%. Key industries, such as agriculture and manufacturing, were disrupted.
Environmental: Landslides triggered by shaking caused further destruction, and the damage to water and sewage systems led to a cholera outbreak, which killed over 9,000 people.
Responses:
Short-term:
International Aid: The US, UN, and other countries provided emergency supplies, medical aid, and humanitarian support. However, Haiti’s lack of infrastructure delayed rescue operations and aid distribution.
Search and Rescue: Efforts were hindered by damage to infrastructure, with limited access to affected areas.
Shelter: Over 1.5 million people were displaced into temporary shelters, which contributed to the spread of diseases like cholera.
Long-term:
Rebuilding Efforts: Over $13 billion in international aid was pledged, but only a small percentage reached the Haitian government. This inefficiency in aid distribution slowed the recovery process.
Health Crisis: Cholera continued to spread due to inadequate sanitation, highlighting the need for better public health infrastructure.
Disaster Preparedness: Haiti’s disaster preparedness and resilience strategies were very weak, which further exacerbated the disaster’s impact.
Relevance to AQA Geography (Hazards):
Hazard Management: Haiti’s vulnerability was compounded by weak governance, poor building standards, and a lack of preparation. This shows the importance of disaster preparedness and governance in managing natural hazards.
Risk Perception & Vulnerability: Haiti’s location and poverty made it highly vulnerable. Poor urban planning, such as densely populated informal settlements with poorly constructed buildings, contributed to high casualties.
Response Effectiveness: The response to the earthquake was slow and uncoordinated, which highlights the need for efficient local and international response strategies, as well as the importance of building resilient infrastructure.
Tohoku Earthquake & Tsunami (2011)
Location & Context
Magnitude: 9.0
Epicenter: 70 km off the east coast of Honshu, Japan.
Tectonic Setting: Subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the Eurasian Plate at a destructive plate boundary.
Causes:
The earthquake occurred due to the sudden release of built-up stress along the Japan Trench (subduction zone). It was a megathrust earthquake at a depth of 30 km, followed by a tsunami triggered by the sudden vertical displacement of the seafloor.
Impacts:
Social: 15,900 deaths, 6,000+ injuries, and over 160,000 people displaced due to the Fukushima nuclear disaster.
Economic: Estimated at $235 billion, making it the most expensive natural disaster ever. The tsunami damaged the industrial and agricultural sectors, disrupting global supply chains.
Environmental: The Fukushima nuclear meltdown caused long-term environmental damage, including radiation contamination. Coastal ecosystems were also severely impacted.
Responses:
Short-term:
Evacuations and Rescue Operations: Japan’s advanced technology and early-warning system allowed millions to evacuate, saving many lives.
International Aid: Though Japan has strong infrastructure, international teams provided support, focusing on medical aid and clearing debris.
Nuclear Crisis: Cooling systems were activated at the Fukushima nuclear plant to avoid further radiation leaks, though the plant suffered significant damage.
Long-term:
Rebuilding: A multi-billion-dollar rebuilding program was launched, improving infrastructure and strengthening tsunami defenses.
Tsunami Defense Improvements: Japan improved tsunami defenses by constructing higher sea walls and revising evacuation plans.
Nuclear Safety: After Fukushima, Japan implemented stricter safety standards and more robust disaster-proofing measures for nuclear plants.
Relevance to AQA Geography (Hazards):
Monitoring & Prediction: Japan’s early warning systems, such as the Japan Meteorological Agency, were essential in saving lives, demonstrating the importance of monitoring and preparedness in reducing disaster impacts.
Integrated Management Strategies: The disaster involved multiple hazards (earthquake, tsunami, nuclear crisis), highlighting the need for multi-hazard risk management and cross-disciplinary planning.
Resilience: Despite the initial damage, Japan’s resilience and ability to rapidly respond and rebuild is a key learning point, showing the importance of preparation and technological innovation in reducing future risks.
Indian Ocean Tsunami (2004)
Location & Context
Magnitude: 9.1
Epicenter: Off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia.
Tectonic Setting: Subduction zone between the Indian Plate and the Burma Plate at a destructive plate boundary.
Causes:
A massive underwater earthquake triggered a tsunami as the seafloor uplifted by 15 meters, creating waves that reached up to 30 meters in height.
Impacts:
Social: 230,000 deaths across 14 countries, with millions more displaced.
Economic: $10 billion in damages. The destruction of infrastructure and agricultural land led to long-term economic disruption, particularly in the tourism and fishing sectors.
Environmental: Coastal ecosystems were destroyed, and freshwater supplies were contaminated due to saltwater intrusion. Coral reefs were also heavily damaged.
Responses:
Short-term:
International Aid: Immediate relief efforts were launched globally, providing food, water, medical supplies, and temporary shelters.
Search-and-Rescue Operations: Over 400,000 people were rescued in the weeks following the disaster.
Evacuations: Affected countries issued warnings, although the lack of an early-warning system meant many were caught off guard.
Long-term:
Tsunami Warning System: In 2006, the Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System (IOTWS) was established, although initial progress was slow.
Rebuilding and Recovery: Billions of dollars in aid helped rebuild infrastructure and support affected communities, but full recovery took years.
Environmental Restoration: Long-term environmental restoration programs focused on rebuilding ecosystems and rehabilitating agricultural land.
Relevance to AQA Geography (Hazards):
Lack of Preparedness: Unlike other regions like Japan, the Indian Ocean lacked a tsunami warning system, which exacerbated the disaster’s impact. This emphasizes the importance of early-warning systems in saving lives and reducing hazard vulnerability.
Vulnerability of LICs: The affected countries were primarily low-income nations with poor infrastructure, increasing their vulnerability to the disaster. This shows the link between socio-economic status and disaster risk.
Global Coordination: The response to the Indian Ocean tsunami demonstrated the importance of international cooperation in disaster relief and the long-term need for community resilience-building and sustainable development.
Montserrat Volcanic Eruption (1995–1997)
Location & Context
VEI rating:3-4
Location: Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat, in the Caribbean.
Tectonic Setting: Destructive plate boundary where the North American Plate subducts beneath the Caribbean Plate.
Causes:
The eruption resulted from the build-up of andesitic magma, which led to dome growth and explosive eruptions. Pyroclastic flows and lahars were the main hazards.
Impacts:
Social: 19 people were killed, and 7,000 people were evacuated, leaving the capital city, Plymouth, abandoned.
Economic: The eruption devastated agriculture, the island’s primary industry, and led to a significant drop in tourism, resulting in major economic loss.
Environmental: The pyroclastic flows destroyed homes, crops, and infrastructure, while lahars and ash clouds devastated ecosystems and affected air quality.
Responses:
Short-term:
Evacuations: Thousands were relocated to safer areas, particularly to the northern part of the island.
Emergency Relief: The UK government provided £41 million in aid, offering emergency supplies and support to displaced residents.
Long-term:
Volcanic Monitoring: The Montserrat Volcano Observatory (MVO) was established to monitor volcanic activity and provide early warnings for evacuations.
Rebuilding Plans: Plans for rebuilding focused on relocating populations to safer areas, but the island’s economy remained slow to recover.
Relevance to AQA Geography (Hazards):
Hazard Management & Monitoring: Montserrat’s long-term recovery illustrates the role of volcanic monitoring in hazard mitigation, and how managing risk can reduce the impacts of such disasters.
Vulnerability and Adaptation: The eruption highlights how volcanic risk management must be tailored to local vulnerability, and the challenge of rebuilding in disaster-prone areas.
International Support & Sustainability: The role of international aid and sustainable development in supporting the recovery of small island states is another key lesson.
Eyjafjallajökull Volcanic Eruption (2010)
Location & Context
VEI: 4
Location: Eyjafjallajökull volcano, southern Iceland.
Tectonic Setting: Iceland is located on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a divergent plate boundary where the North American and Eurasian plates are moving apart. The volcano is located near the plate boundary where magma rises due to rifting.
Causes:
The eruption was caused by a build-up of pressure from magma rising beneath the glacier. A fissure in the volcano allowed magma to rise, causing an explosive eruption. The eruption occurred beneath Eyjafjallajökull, which is covered by an ice cap, leading to large amounts of meltwater that mixed with ash and caused flooding.
Impacts:
Social:
No immediate fatalities, but 100,000 people were evacuated due to ashfall and flooding risks.
The eruption caused significant disruptions to air travel, with around 100,000 flights canceled over several weeks, affecting millions of passengers and businesses globally.
Economic:
The global aviation industry was severely impacted, with the European Commission estimating that the economic losses to airlines alone were about €1.7 billion. The agricultural sector in Iceland was also damaged by ash, particularly affecting crops and livestock.
Tourism suffered as the ash cloud led to widespread cancellations of flights to and from Europe, impacting businesses that rely on tourism.
Environmental:
Ashfall affected local ecosystems, including agricultural land and vegetation.
The eruption’s ash cloud spread across Europe, impacting air quality and contributing to temporary atmospheric cooling.
Glacial meltwater caused flooding, and the combination of ash and meltwater created lahars (volcanic mudflows) that caused significant erosion and property damage.
Air quality was affected in the surrounding regions due to the ash cloud.
Responses:
Short-term:
Evacuations: Local authorities evacuated thousands of people, especially from areas near the volcano that were at risk of flooding due to the meltwater.
Air Travel Disruption: Airspace was closed across Europe, affecting European and global air travel. Authorities set up ash monitoring systems to predict the movement of ash clouds and inform air traffic control.
International Aid and Assistance: Iceland received assistance from neighboring countries and international agencies to manage the ash and flooding effects.
Communication: Efficient communication about the ash cloud helped to prevent fatalities and injuries, though the economic impact on air travel was severe.
Long-term:
Monitoring and Early Warning Systems: Iceland’s Icelandic Meteorological Office (IMO) strengthened its monitoring systems for volcanic activity to better predict future eruptions.
Tourism Recovery: Iceland’s tourism sector eventually rebounded, with the volcano becoming a tourist attraction for those interested in geology and volcanic activity.
Global Aviation Regulations: The eruption led to changes in aviation regulations regarding the monitoring and management of ash clouds, which has since improved aviation safety during volcanic events.
Relevance to AQA Geography (Hazards):
Hazard Management: The eruption illustrates the importance of monitoring volcanoes and having emergency response plans in place to protect lives and limit economic disruption.
Vulnerability and Risk: Despite being located in a volcanic hotspot, Iceland had well-developed infrastructure and monitoring systems, which helped to manage the risk effectively. However, the global impact on air travel demonstrated how interconnected natural hazards are with global systems.
Impact of Globalization: The disruption to global air travel highlights the interconnectedness of the world and the far-reaching consequences of a natural event that occurred in a remote location. This case shows how hazards can affect not just local communities, but also international economies.
Resilience: Iceland’s ability to manage the disaster efficiently and recover relatively quickly is an example of resilience in a high-risk area. It shows how investment in hazard monitoring, response planning, and resilience-building can mitigate the worst effects of a volcanic eruption.
