Case Studies Flashcards
China’s patterns of development and Distribution:
Population mainly eastern as it is easier to develop on due to its flat plains and Yangtze and Yellow rivers providing water for farmland and cities
Western China least populated due to Himalayas and Gobi desert
11% of the 1.4 billion live on 0.5% of the land with 50% of the population living on 8.2% of the land whereas 50% of the land is occupied by just 4.2% of the population.
Over 90% of people living in poverty live in rural areas
The standard of housing is often poor
People are being moved to apartment blocks, to free up land for factories
Literacy rates in rural areas are 65%, but in urban areas they are 84%
The rate of unemployment in rural areas is over 30%
Uneven pop dens makes economic growth uneven with 4 provinces on the east coast having GDP per capita of $13000 compared to Gansu in north China with only $4936 per capita
The uneven distribution is continuing as since 1978 160 million have moved from rural to urban, boosting economy but causing overcrowding
Partly due to wage as in urban areas wage is 40% higher than in rural
Mega regions have been proposed to solve overpopulation with plan for mega city Jing Jin Ji which would hold 130 million by 2035 and combine 9 cities including shanghai.
South Africa’s Patterns of Development and Distribution:
Population dens very uneven as high dens around mineral rich areas e.g cape town and Durban vs north cape province w/ dens of 5 people/km2. Pop dens decreases as move from SE to NW reflecting rainfall patterns and mountain regions in west.
Migration caused by industrial revolution and forced migration during apartheid and then movement after collapse of system and abolishment of white towns. More black people then migrated to cities for work and many forced to live in substandard living on edges of towns
1995-2015 urban pop increased from 55% to 65% due to natural increase. Lots of rural-urban migration leading to Johannesburg being only megacity. Been increase in circular migration where workers repeatedly move between home and host area.
More women move to cities recently after years on farms and undergo circular migration.
Had lots of internal migration e.g rural free state to urban Gauteng or international as south sudanese escape to south africa from civil unrest.
Syria: Forced Migration
Has led to 500,000+ deaths and displaced 13.3 million people, over half Syria’s population since it’s start in 2011
6.7 million internally displaced and 5.5 million living in 5 neighbouring countries w/ 3.6 million in Turkey alone, the largest refugee population hosted by a single country
Impacts on Syria:
Loss of life, homes, jobs, 2 mil kids out of school and 1.6 million at risk of dropping out, bombing has flattened land, affecting crop yields and much of the water is polluted
Impacts of Jordan:
Zaatari camp home to 80,000 and has had 20,000 births there despite being the 2nd most water scarce country in the world.
Impacts of Turkiye:
In 2016, refugees allowed work permits and since then a total of 1599 new companies have been started by Syrian refugees
Impacts of Lebanon:
Overwhelming burden on infrastructure, society and the economy w/ most refugees in poverty
Lebanon has the highest number of refugees per capita in the world
Pro-natalist policies in Japan
10% 80+ and by 2036 1/3 of population will be 65+ and the BR is very low
Angel plan created which gives paid parental leave, childcare, services and child allowances. Free preschool and day care for kids 3-5 and cost of IVF reduced and introduced paternity leave ad generous paid parental leave for 24 months but BR still 1.36/woman
Have changed immigration policy to allow foreign workers with vocational skills to stay for up to 5 years but couldn’t bring their families but if they had advanced skills they were allowed to bring families and live there indefinitely.
Created age free society where employers are encouraged to keep employees 70+, hire older people, extend retirement age and increase opportunities for elderly
Pro-natalist Russia
Russia has a low fertility rate of 1.5 births per woman
First policy in 1936 where families were rewarded for having 3 or more children
The State increased its help to pregnant women, large families and single mothers
Abortion was a criminal offence
In 1981, Russia reduced the childbearing age and closed contraceptive factories
2006, the fertility rate was 1.3 births per woman so women with large families were called ‘Hero Mothers’ and given medals and gifts
There was an increase in child benefits and maternity leave and if women gave up work they were offered 40% of what they had previously earned
Payments of 250,000 Russian Roubles to women who give birth to a second/third child
All-expense-paid summer camp for young adults and made ‘Day of Conception’, 12/9/2006 ‘citizens are relieved of work and are encouraged to use their afternoons to copulate and if child is born on 12/6/2007, receive cars, TVs and other prizes
BR rose by 4.5% but by 2011 the fertility rate was 1.54, a 21% increase. However, these increases were short-lived and the effects of the policies have worn-off
Anti-natalist China
1 child policy 1979-2016 although relaxed in 1999. Said couples mustn’t marry until late 20s and only allowed one child. If couple sticks to rules, salary rise by 5-10% but if disobeyed, salary cut by 10% and a fine that typically bankrupted. Exceptions were rural and ethnic minority families.
Reduced pop growth by 400 million, prevented the predicted famine and caused pop to peak at 1.5 billion.
But women forced to have abortions as late as 9 months, people under pressure from family and the ‘granny police’ and sons preferred so resulted in large female infanticide.
Impacts:
Decrease in labour force w/ increased dependency ratio, ageing pop of 450 million 60+ and sex imbalance with 118 males to 100 females.
Demographic dividend: South Korea
South Korea’s dividend began in 1960 after Korean war and ended in 1990 and resulted in a rapid transition from high to low fertility and enabled economic growth. In 1962 TFR was 6.3 births/woman but in 1985 it was 2.2 births, and life expectancy in that time increased from 53 to 68.
Achieved this change by investing in health centres including family planning services.
Benefits of dividend to Korea:
Reduction in TFR and increased life expectancy contributed to a large and young workforce
Improvements in education, women were able to remain in careers, thereby boosting the economy
Made education system more equal and led to one of the most educated populations in the world. 69.8% of South Koreans aged 25 to 34 years have completed some form of tertiary education. 34.2% of South Koreans aged 25 to 64 have a bachelor’s degree. Rapidly grew economic development through a skilled workforce
Changes to pop size and age structure contributed to economic growth and allowed South Korea to become an export orientated economy (exports provide over 50% of GDP). Rapid industrialisation caused urban growth and improved infrastructure across the country, making South Korea one of the fastest growing economies with an average 4% GDP growth per year
Trafficking in Nigeria
Many women trafficked between Nigeria and Western Europe for sexual exploitation and Nigerian women account for over 10% of trafficked people. The prostitution gangs are also entangled in the European drug smuggling gangs.
Examine effects of global climate change (CC) on communities and natural systems:
CC natural process due to milankovich cycles, albedo effect and volcanic activity and GHGs crucial for life survival on earth. However, anthropogenic activities enhance effect.
Ganer glacier 🇨🇭 retreated by 2.5km in 130 years
Ice in artic decrease as global max and min shrinks and by 2040 predicted ships could sail over north pole.
Melting ice increases sea levels 5cm/year threatenign low lying places e.g 🇫🇯 🇹🇻 where CC migrants are occuring and 🇹🇻uploading 3D image of islands onto metaverse.
🇧🇩 75% of contry less than 10m above sealevel and CC enhances monsoon with monsoon rainfall predicted ot increase by 40% in 2030 increasing no crops damaged and deaths
Shrinking in ice has positive feedback as decreases amount of light reflected in albedo so increases temperature and more ice melts etc.
Also increase temp causes permafrost to thaw releasing CH4 and CO2 increasing temp so more thawing.
Increase CO2 decreases sea pH causing coral bleaching as zooxanthellae die
Drought more common causing wildfires in 🇨🇦 and since 1970 area burnt by fires doubled and 1000s of trees killed and destruction of carbon sink. 🇬🇭 vulnerbale to drought as rainfall expected to decrease 4% by 2040 making crop failure likely and famine possible as 45% of the population work in agriculture.
UK annual rainfall to increase by 10% in 2050 and NW wetter and more prone to flooding and SE drier and water stress increase. Could face first storm surge since 1953 which would cost £200 billion as could submerge parts of london like in 1953 where 50 underground stations were flooded and 40% of UK fuel was effected.
What are the geopolitical agreements to mitigate CC and when were these selaed?
Mitigation can be by international agreements:
1988, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) set up to assess the ‘risks of human-induced climate change
Earth Summit, Rio 1992
Set out aims to stabilise greenhouse gas levels
Kyoto Protocol 1997
150 countries agreed to reduce GHGs emitted. Industrialised countries would reduce emissions to below the levels in 1990 but MICS like 🇨🇳, 🇮🇳 exempt and 🇺🇸 didn’t sign up. 🇨🇦 withdrew in 2011 as without 🇨🇳, 🇺🇸 would not work
Paris Agreement 2015
Global agreement to limit global warming to 2oC (preferably 1.5oC) included reducing CO2 emissions by at least 60% by 2050. Signed by 196 countries
Conference of the Parties (COP)
The UN annual meeting to discuss climate change. e.g COP 26 in glasgow
where nations agreed to take actions to further reduce GHGs
What are global examples of interactions in the Water, Food and Energy (WFE) nexus?
Food production and its impact on Energy and Water security:
Energy used to grow, transport and process food, accounting for 30% of global energy use.
Increased demand for food increases energy use. New technology, such as hydroponics, uses more energy for light and heat
70+% of freshwater withdrawals for agriculture
Pollution from livestock, fertilisers and pesticides reduces freshwater availability and food processing uses lots of water
Energy and its impact on Food and Water security:
Growth of biofuels and solar farms use land which could have grown crops
Mining and drilling for fossil fuels creates waste, polluting farmland
Use of water for energy production and cooling and fracking uses lots of water.
Dams for HEP reduces discharge downstream but can improve water security in some areas
Water and its impact of Energy and Food:
Urbanisation increases demand for water, reducing amount available for food growth
Desalination requires lots of energy and lots of energy needed for treatment of waste water and water abstraction
Water shortages impact energy production
Give example where 2 places are affected by water, food and energy interactions:
A lack of available water to cool power plants in India caused loss of 8.2 terawatt hours as power plants couldn’t function
Europe uses land to grow feedstock to biofuels but could be used to produce food for 120 million.
Bangladesh WFE insecurities:
Water:
40% don’t have access to safe water
70% no access to improved sanitation
50% drink water with arsenic in it
Agriculture uses 80% of water withdrawl
Reduced Himalayan Ice stores decrease supply further
Food:
11 million suffer from acute hunger
36% of <5 suffer from stunting showing chronic malnutrition
Increased coastal flooding causes salinisation affecting crop yields with soil salinity increasing by 26% over last 35 years
Arable land lost to erosion of river banks and coast and due to building of settlements and industry, 69000 hectares of farmland lost/year.
Extreme weather impacts crops and livestock, e.g Cyclone Sidr killed 500,000+ livestock and damaged 1.5 million hectares of land
Energy:
Electricity availability increased from 20% (2000) to 85%
Relies on imports of energy resources heavily to generate electricity
Aims to be 15% renewable by 2030
Increased solar power but resorted to being on top of roofs to reduce use of arable land
Denmark WFE securities and what are the threats:
Water:
Has Water surplus as supply is much greater than demand by 180%
90% connected to main sewage network
Most of water from groundwater sources and use of water is split equally between agriculture, domestic and industrial use
Threats:
Salt intrusion to ground water as sea levels rise and coast floods
Salinisation due to increased demand on groundwater
Food:
Only 1.8% w/ severe food insecurity
Only imports 13% of food
Threats:
Despite longer growing season as Temp increases, increased need for pesticides, fertilisers and irrigation
More precipitation in winter and rising sea levels increase flood risk and crop loss
Water temp increase inmpacted native species like salmon and trout. New species have been found though e.g hake and been increase in toxic algae blooms risking eutrophication and threatens fish populations
Energy:
Imports 12% of energy
100% have access to electricity
Reduced Fossil fuel reliance as all oil power stations shut and coal ones are being shut down
Nexus approach to water: South Asia
The Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region vital for promotion of food, energy and food downstream.
Water:
Growing water demand for industry and agriculture as annual water demand expected to increase by 55% from 2005. Making access to potable water harder as supply varies and water-intensive practices cause increase in water born disease w/ high child mortality and poor health
High dependency of downstream communities on upstream for water to grow food and generate HEP. This has caused a need for enhanced upstream coordination and development of the HKH resources.
70-80% of agricultural production depends on groundwater so adaptation must be made as water table declines and groundwater pumping requires excessive energy which further increases electricity demand.
Nexus approach to food: South Asia
Food:
46% of world undernourished live there. To meet the needs of this population, food production in the area needs to double over the next 25 years
25% world pop in 3% of land meaning agricultural production needs to increase by 70% but places pressure on the land, water and energy demand
Arable land dwindling as pop grows and an increase in biofuel feedstock being grown. This limits area for the agricultural growth to occur and there’s a fine line between land demand for food, ecosystem service and bio-energy production
Food production becoming increasingly water intensive so agricultural growth is constrained due to lack of energy and water
Meat production requires more energy and water with 7kg of rice=1kg of meat meaning more water required for food
Food production vulnerable to CC as water availabiltiy uncertain due to rapid glacier melt and change in monsoon patterns.
Nexus approach to energy: South Asia
Energy:
63% of population w/out access to electricity and 65% use biomass for cooking causing an increase in demand for land and water for more energy generation
Hydropower in Himalayas limited in places due to risk of landslides so advancements are limited.The HKH area is solely responsible for HEP by experienced heavy deforestation, land degradation and soil erosion making risk of flooding ever increasing.
One internationally shared water resource and the role of different stakeholders GERD
Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam:
145m tall, 1600m+ and 14km east of 🇸🇩. Cost $5billion, can generate 6.45 gigawatts and will double 🇪🇹 electricity generating capacity increasing supply to households from 20% to 70%.
More electricity generated than is required so 🇸🇩 can buy at affordable price w/ 🇸🇩 buying 1000 gigawatts whihc is 5x amount they’re currently buying from 🇪🇹, boosting 🇪🇹 economy and dam will allow for irriagtion and by 2060, GDP of 🇪🇹 increases by £66billion.
However, 🇪🇬 not happy as could cause drought as 90% of 🇪🇬 freshwater comes from nile and would cause crop failure and electricity shortages as less water through the Aswan High Dam. A decreases of 2% of nile water causes 200,000 acres of irrigated land to be lost and 🇪🇬 describes the GERD as an existential threat
One internationally shared water resource and the role of different stakeholders Aswan High Dam
111m tall and 22 miles long
Cost $1 billion in 1970 = $8billion in 2025 and funded by soviets. Displaced 50,000 and flooded artefacts. Took 6 years to build and fill so temporary water reduction. 10% of water was lost in construction and water is lost via evaporation
Generates 10 billion kwh/year and increased agricultural capacity of 🇪🇬 and protects from droughts and flooding. Good fishing industry in lake Nasser behind dam as recreational and commercial fishing for the Nile Perch and high tourism to the site. Employed 34,000 during building and multiplier effect caused 🇪🇬 GNI to increase by 4.9 million egyptian pounds. Reservoir also used for textile industry
2 contrasting detailed examples of flood mitigation of drainage basins
Mississippi River - 3800km lomng and most recent flood killed 50 and dealt $12 billion in damages
To mitigate floods:
The Mat sinking unit (US army corps of engineers) built concrete matts onto natural levees and impermeable concrete walls to decrease erosion damage.
Army corp built 20 major flood control reservoirs in upper course. If rain expected, release some of the reservoir to prepare.
In urban areas concrete walls, flood gates, drainage basins, dredging and pumping stations
LANDSAT satelite imagery to access damage and establish areas prone to flooding aiding future planning
Federal Emergency Management Agency’s (FEMA) flood insurance program that states if damage to a home exceeds 50%, not rebuilt
Jakarta, Indonesia
Faces significant flooding due to rapid urbanisation and many parts of the city are below sea level and half the city is sinking at rate of 9 inches/year
On 1/1/20 400+mm rain and ciliwung and cisadane rivers flooded killing 66, displacing 60,000 and some parts of the city were 2 metres under water
Cloud seeding planes were used ti increase rainfall over oceans instead of over land to reduce flooding
Since to mitigate risk:
Widened and deepened flood channels, built the east flood canal, started Jakarta emergency dredging initiative to increase river capacity, created more green urban spaces to decrease surface run off, created advanced warning system and educated poorer communities using community workshops to explain how to protect themselves during flooding and prepared life-vests and emergency kits.
Examples to state the role of stakeholders of the consequences of agricultural pollution
Agriculture leads to the degradation of water sources affecting all stakeholders.
Texas has largest cattle population in the US, w/ around 13 million animals. Feedlots lead to mass eutrophication as the nitrates from the manure leeches into water sources causing contamination. Also, agriculture accounts for large percentage water use of a country (e.g 11% of french water extraction of freshwater down to agriculture and greatly increases in the summer) so pressure on water companies who need to supply clean water to consumers and domestic consumers that rely on clean water supplies. Mass eutrophication occurred in Lake Dianchi as pig farming in the Yunnan province of China and has lead to destruction of habitats and marine ecosystems due to harmful algal blooms
Salinisation frequent in farming due to irrigation of crops which leads to loss of aquifer capacity, has reduced Texas water table by 50m and has reduced world’s albedo effect by 10% as replaced sandy surfaces with dark green. Salinisation occured in Aral sea in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan as Soviets in ’60s diverted 2 rivers for irrigation causing the lake to lose 92% of its volume and salinity increased fro 1% to 22% making water uninhabitable and caused 40,000 unemployed from the fishing and camel industry. Also, created toxic winds that cause respiratory illnesses and fertilisers are spread by wind.
How does Bangladesh mitigate flooding?
In Bangladesh the Flood Action Plan was created after the devastating floods in ‘87 and ‘88. Had heavy favouring of structural mitigation and had several dams planned but most were not finished due to funding issues. Implemented compartmentalisation in Tangail, spanning 13,305 hectares as embankments were made to act as erosion control measures.
This is just to be aware of- better studies are the Mississippi and Jakarta examples
What is an example of local action cases for water management features?
Cape town suffered severe drought from 2015 to 2018 and the city suffered severe water shortages. The city government implemented water restrictions, including bans on outdoor and non-essential water use and towards the end limited water per capita to 13 gallons per day. Public were educated and responded positively and effectively and the city implemented strategies like wastewater to potable water filtration and due to innovative solutions, the day zero (day were municipal water supplies would be turned off) was averted as rain came in June so the dam levels recovered and by September 2018 city began to ease water restrictions.
One IDBM plan
