Case 4- Bowel cancer Flashcards
What are some structural features of small intestine?
- Plicae circularis: mucous folds that increase SA
- Villi and microvilli: villi contain an arteriole, venole and lacteal,
- Crypts: tubular glands that open between villi (bases). The duodenal glands (of Brunner) are seen in the mucosa
- Lymphatic follicles: aggregated lymphoid follicles throughout SI and LI, in the ileum they are called Peyer’s patches
- Paneth cells: secrete antimicrobial peptides, i.e. Defensins and lysozymes
how can you distinguish between the jejunum and ileum
Jejunum has thicker wall, is larger and red in colour as it is more vascular. It has longer vasa recta with less prominent arterioles (from SMA)
[ileum has shorta vasa recta and more arteriole arcades]
How can brush border enzymes enter the SI? Give an example of one
Brush border enzymes are present on microvilli and break down materials when they come into contact. Epithelial cells absorb the breakdown products, then shed and disintegrate in the lumen. This releases intracellular and brush border enzymes
Example = enteropeptidase (enterokinase) - then activates trypsingen after entry
What causes peristaltic contractions of the duodenum after chyme enters?
Myenteric reflexes - stimulated by distention of food. It contracts the muscle behind the stimulus and relaxes the muscle in front of it = push food in one direction
When is gastrin secreted by the duodenum and what does it lead to?
Secreted by enteroendocrine G cells when exposed to large quantities of peptones. Increases stomach motility and production of gastric acid
(also produced by the stomach)
When is secretin secreted by the duodenum and what does it lead to?
Released when chyme enters the DD. Increases secretion of buffers:
- pancreas to increase pH
- Stimulates bile secretion from liver
- reduces gastric motility and secretory rates
When is GIP secreted by the duodenum and what does it lead to?
Secreted when fats and CHO enters. Inhibits gastrin and stimulates insulin release (promotes FA/ glu uptake)
What is the role of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)?
Stimulates secretion of intestinal glands
Inhibits acid production in the stomach
Dilates capillaries
What does enterocrinin stimulate the secretion of?
Stimulates alkaline mucus secretion from submucosal glands
What happens when there isnt any food in the SI?
Motilin is released episodically, activates the migrating motor complex (MMC) = clears the SI of any debris
What are 3 distinguishing features of the large intestine?
- Omental appendices: small pouches of peritoneum filled with fat
- Teniae coli: 3 strips of muscle run along its surface = mesocolic, free and omental colic
- Haustra: formed when the teniae coli contract to shorten the wall of the bowel, producing sacculations (pouches)
Briefly state the functions of the colon
- Resorption of water
- Reabsorption of bile salts and vitamins
- Motility and defecation reflex
What is the short intrinsic myenteric feedback loop in the defecation reflex?
Afferent fibres from stretch receptors in rectum –> myenteric plexus to increase peristaltic contractions in sigmoid colon and rectum. Increases distention of rectum. When contractions reach the anus, the intrinsic anal sphincter relaxes
What is the long, parasympathetic defecation reflex?
Long reflex of enteric NS: stretch receptors stimulate parasympathetic motor neurons in the sacral spinal cord, to stimulate peristalsis of sigmoid + rectum. Increases rectal pressure. Stimulated motor neurons send efferent impulses in pelvic nerves so intrinsic anal sphincter relaxes
What determines release of faeces from the anus?
Activation of the somatic NS (pudendal nerves) to relax the external sphincter
At what rectal pressure do you get an urge to defecate?
15 mmHg
What is the lymphatic drainage of the large colon?
Ascending and transverse –> superior mesenteric nodes
Descending and sigmoid –> inferior mesenteric nodes
From here, lymph passes into intestinal lymph trunks then -> cisterna chyli -> thoracic duct
Where are the epiploic and paracolic lymph nodes found?
Epiploic = wall of colon
Paracolic = between marginal artery and bowel
Where is the most common area for metastases of colon cancer?
Liver
Other common areas= lungs, brain, distant lymph nodes and peritoneum
What is the effect of CCK after its release?
- Travels in blood to stimulate the gall bladder to contract
- Stimulates vagal afferents to travel to the brain to dorsal-vagal complex and release ACh (vago-vagal reflex), which also causes contraction of gall bladder
- PNS fibres also cause release of NO and VIP to relax the sphincter of Oddi
- Produces satiety in CNS
What are some stimulatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters released from enteric neurons?
Stimulatory = substance P, gastrin releasing peptide (GRP)
Inhibitory= vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), NO
How is motility achieved by the colon? (2 movements)
Segmentational movement: Peristaltic waves of the teniae coli (longitudinal muscle) and circular muscles contract, form haustra (bag-like sacs) = churns the food, mixing content of adjacent haustra
Propulsive (mass) movement: slow but persistent haustra contractions
What is the importance of segmentational movement of the colon?
Allows all fluid and dissolved substances to come into contact with the mucosal surface of the LI, so it can be absorbed. Also is very slow to maximise absorption
Where is sodium absorbed and how?
Ileum and large intestine:
- Na+/H+ antiporter on luminal membrane
- Epithelial Na+ channels (ENaC)- main way
- With SCFA via SMCT1 (Na+ coupled)
How is chloride absorbed in the colon?
Na+ absorption creates an electrochemical gradient to sitmulate Cl- absorption:
- Voltage dependent Cl- = across tight junctions driven by the charge or through Cl- channels
- Cl-/ HCO3- exchange: Cl- is absorbed and HCO3- secreted
How is water absorbed in the colon?
The NaCl absorption creates an osmotic gradient across the LI mucosa, so water is absorbed
What endocrine mechanisms increase absorption in the colon? How?
- Aldosterone= stimulates basolateral Na+/K+ ATPase (increases electrochemical gradient), also increases transcription of ENaC
- Glucocorticoids and somatostatin: increase action of basolateral Na+/K+ ATPase
How does the enteric NS affect secretion/ absorption of the intestine?
Sympathetic = promotes net absorption
Parsympathetic= promotes net secretion
What does the commensal microbial flora of the colon produce from the digestion of chyme?
short-chain fatty acids, crucial B vitamins (such as B6 and B12) and vitamin K
Compare metaplasia, dysplasia, and anaplasia
Metaplasia= change in differentiation, an adaptive response to stimuli
Dysplasia= proliferation of abnormal (metaplasia) cells
Anaplasia= loss of intracellular structural differentiation within a cell, often with increased capacity for multiplication (i.e. malignant tumour)
Which phase of the cell cycle is the cell sensitive to GF or anti-proliferative factors?
G1 - determines whether it enters the cycle (i.e. GF= enters, AP= doesnt)
Describe how clonal expansion can lead to cancer
1: Intitiating mutation = cell grows faster than neighbouring cells (1st clonal expansion)
2: One cell acquires a second mutation (2nd clonal expansion)
3: Leads to subclones of clonal expansions (Darwinian evolution)
- If lots of different subclones (i.e. dynamic) = tumour heterogenity
What is an oncogene? How many copies do you need to have a dominant effect?
Leads to gain-of-function effects. Mutation in 1 copy = sufficient for dominant effect
Give examples of oncogenes relevant to colorectal cancer
B-catenin and KRAS (family including Ras)
What is a tumour suppressor gene? How many copies do you need for a dominant effect?
Leads to loss of function. Need 1 copy for familial disease (as already acquire 1 mutant allele), but 2 for sporadic disease (‘2 hit hypothesis’)
Give examples of TSG’s relevant to colorectal cancer
APC and p53
What is Ras? How does it act as an on/off switch?
An oncogene which has GTPase activity: it binds to GTP (active), can hydrolyse GTP –> GDP releasing Pi (=inactive). It can reactivate by releasing GDP then bind to GTP (acts as on/off switch)
What can activate Ras?
Growth factors - to stimualte proliferation and cell growth
What happens when there is a single mutation of Ras? Give an example of one
I.e. G12V, it locks Ras into its active form, so proliferation is stimulated int the absence of proliferative signals (self-sufficiency).
What does progression through hte cell cycle depend on?
Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK), which have to bind to cyclins [cyclin levels alter]
Give the CDK/Cyclin complexes present at each point of the cell cycle
Entry into G1: CDK4/ CDK6 + Cyclin D
Entry into S: CDK2 + Cyclin E
Progression through S: CDK2 + Cyclin A
Drive cell into mitosis: CDK1 + Cyclin B
What can inhibit CDK/ Cyclin complexes? Give an example
CKI’s (cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors) such as p21
What can be thought of as a break in the cell cycle? Why?
Rb - as its normally bound to E2F, thus preventing its gene transcription. If there’s no Rb, E2F will be liberated and active = cell cycle progression
Describe how growth factors and Wnt signals can lead to progression through the cell cycle
Growth factors activate Ras, Wnt signals activate B-catenin. These oncogenes lead to gene transcription of cyclin D1 (and other targets).
Cyclin D1 binds to CKD4, then this complex then phosphorylates Rb-E2F complex
Rb then releases E2F (transcirption factor)
E2F leads to transcription of Cyclin E
Cyclin E binds to CDK2, which has positive feedback on Rb to increase E2F release, and also facilitates progression into S phase
In un-stimulated cells, why are levels of B-catenin low?
The complex with APC is intact, so GSK-3B phosphorylates (degrades) B-catenin = levels are low
How do Wnt signals drive cell proliferation?
Wnt signals engage with the receptor, which disrupts the complex and inactivates GSK-3B. Therefore B-catenin isnt phosphorylated and builds up int he cell. It moves to the nucleus to stimulate gene transcription
What is often referred to as the guardian of the genome? Why?
p53 - helps induce cell cycle arrest to give the cell time to repair when there’s damage (i.e. after UV radiation). It does this by activating p21 (CKI), and can induce apoptosis by Noxa genes.
How does hyperproliferation lead to CRC?
one crypt becomes bigger than the others due to hyper-proliferation. over time this leads to formation of a polyp, which protrudes into the lumen. This can develop into an adenocarcinoma
What cells are found at the bottom of crypts?
Stem cells, contain Lgr5+
What is the main gene mutated in sporadic CRC? Whats another common mutation?
APC (a tumour supressor gene) - mutated in 80-90%
B-catenin was mutated in 10-20%
What are the 2 main types of familial CRC?
Familial adenomatous poylposis (FAP)
Hereditary non-polyposis colon cancer (HNPCC)
What is the pathogenesis of familial adenomatous poylposis?
Individuals inherit one mutated copy of APC on gene 5q21. The other allele undergoes loss of heterozygosity = no functional copies left (autosomal dominant)
Leads to hundreds of polyps forming on the luminal surface of the colon. They then develop into carcinomas
Describe the migration of cells through the crypts
Stem cells are at the bottom of the crypt, and respond to Wnt signals secreted from stromal cells surroundnig. Wnt activates B-catenin, so the stem cells migrate up and out of the crypt whilst proliferating. Once out of the zone with stromal cells, wnt signals stop so theres no further proliferation and stem cells are differentiated
What is the implication of losing APC?
Loss of function of APC stabilises B-catenin. Therefore, stem cells can divide in the absence of Wnt, i.e. proliferation is driven beyond the normal zone (B-catenin is active above the normal zone)
What are the repair proteins for DNA?
MutS-alpha and MutL-alpha
What promoter may be silenced in sporadic CRC?
MLH1