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Kin 200 > Cardivascular > Flashcards

Cardivascular Flashcards

1
Q

What are the main functions of the cardiovascular system?

A

○ Transport of O2 and CO2
○ Nutrient supply (substrates, H2O, minerals)
○ Circulation of molecules like hormones
○ Waste removal (e.g., urea)
○ Blood flow regulation
○ Thermoregulation

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2
Q

How is blood flow regulated?

A

It is regulated by dilating and constricting different blood vessels. For instance, in a hot environment, blood is sent towards the skin.

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3
Q

What are the three major components of the cardiovascular system?

A

○ Heart (two separate pumps; size of a fist; 4 chambers & 4 valves)
○ Blood vessels (arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins)
○ Blood (cells - erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets - and molecules dissolved in an aqueous solution - proteins, nutrients, metabolic waste, endocrine molecules)

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4
Q

What percentage of body weight does blood represent?

A

~ 7 %

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5
Q

How much blood does a 70kg person have?

A

~ 4.9 L

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6
Q

Where is the majority of blood volume located?

A

○ ~84% in systemic circulation (64% in veins, 13% in arteries, arterioles, and capillaries)
○ ~7% in the heart
○ ~9% in pulmonary vessels

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7
Q

What are the components of plasma?

A

Water, ions, proteins, nutrients, hormones, and wastes

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8
Q

What is hematocrit?

A

The percentage of blood composed of red blood cells (RBCs)

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9
Q

What factors can influence hematocrit?

A

Training, dehydration, pregnancy

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10
Q

What are the two separate pumps of the heart?

A

The right heart pumps blood through the lungs, also known as pulmonary circulation. This is a low pressure/low resistance system. The left heart pumps blood through the aorta for distribution throughout the body. This is known as systemic circulation, a high pressure/high resistance system.

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11
Q

What does pulmonary circulation include?

A

Blood vessels that go from the right ventricle (pulmonary arteries) to the lungs and back to the left atrium (pulmonary veins).

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12
Q

What does systemic circulation include?

A

Arteries that carry oxygenated blood from the left heart to the tissues and veins that carry deoxygenated blood back to the right heart.

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13
Q

Describe the basic structure of the heart.

A

○ Fist-sized muscle (250-300 grams) located in the center of the thorax
○ Four chambers: 2 atria and 2 ventricles
○ Ventricles are anterior and behind the sternum
○ Apex of the left ventricle is oriented to the left on the diaphragm muscle
○ Atria are oriented posteriorly

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14
Q

What causes the heart to get bigger?

A

Training or disease (hypertrophy)

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15
Q

What are the three layers of cardiac tissue?

A

○ Endocardium (inner) - a layer of endothelial cells
○ Myocardium (middle) - cardiac muscle
○ Epicardium (outer) - external membrane

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16
Q

What is the pericardium?

A

A strong membranous sac that encases and protects the heart. It is fused to the diaphragm and contains pericardial fluid, which lubricates the heart and allows for friction-free movement.

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17
Q

What are the major cardiac vessels and their functions?

A

○ Aorta: directs oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the periphery
○ Pulmonary Trunk: directs venous blood to the pulmonary arteries and lungs
○ Superior and Inferior Venae Cavae: return venous blood to the right atrium

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18
Q

Describe the coronary vascular supply.

A

Coronary vessels branch off the aorta to supply the heart muscle with blood, as the blood in the chambers does not nourish the cardiac cells. Training can increase the number of coronary vessels

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19
Q

Why is the left ventricle thicker than the right ventricle?

A

The left ventricle is responsible for pumping blood to the entire body (systemic circulation), requiring more force and pressure, while the right ventricle only pumps blood to the lungs (pulmonary circulation).

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20
Q

What is the function of cardiac valves?

A

They prevent backflow of blood. They open and close passively based on pressure differences within the heart chambers.

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21
Q

Name the different types of cardiac valves and their locations.

A

Atrioventricular (AV) Valves:
■ Right AV valve = tricuspid valve
■ Left AV valve = bicuspid valve (mitral valve)

Semilunar Valves:
■ Aortic valve
■ Pulmonary valve

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22
Q

How do the cardiac valves operate during ventricular contraction?

A

The AV valves close to prevent backflow into the atria, while the semilunar valves open to allow blood to flow into the aorta and pulmonary artery.

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23
Q

How do the cardiac valves operate during ventricular relaxation?

A

The semilunar valves close to prevent backflow into the ventricles, while the AV valves open to allow blood to flow from the atria into the ventricles.

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24
Q

What are the different types of blood vessels and their functions?

A

○ Arteries: high pressure transport of blood to organs
○ Arterioles: control and distribution of blood flow
○ Capillaries: exchange of nutrients, electrolytes, hormones, etc. with tissues
○ Venules: collection of blood from capillaries
○ Veins: transport of blood back to the heart

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25
Q

What is compliance in blood vessels?

A

The volume change per unit pressure. Veins are more compliant than arteries, meaning they can stretch more easily to accommodate changes in blood volume.

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26
Q

Describe the two types of blood flow.

A

○ Laminar flow: streamlined, orderly flow, typically found in larger blood vessels
○ Turbulent flow: chaotic, disorganized flow, often occurring at branch points or areas of narrowing

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27
Q

What is shear rate?

A

A measure of friction in blood flow, related to vessel dilation and velocity.

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28
Q

Define blood flow (Q) and velocity of flow (V).

A

○ Flow (Q): volume of blood passing a point per unit time (L/min)
○ Velocity of Flow (V): speed at which blood flows (distance traveled per unit time)
○ Relationship: Velocity = Q/A (A = total vessel cross-sectional area)

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29
Q

How does velocity of flow relate to cross-sectional area?

A

Velocity is inversely proportional to cross-sectional area. Blood flows slower in areas with a larger cross-sectional area, such as capillaries, to facilitate exchange.

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30
Q

What drives blood flow, and how is it represented by Ohm’s Law?

A

Blood flows down pressure gradients (ΔP) from high pressure to low pressure. Ohm’s Law: Flow = Δ pressure / resistance.

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31
Q

Where is resistance highest in the cardiovascular system, and why?

A

Arterioles have the highest resistance because they regulate blood flow distribution to different organs and tissues.

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32
Q

What are the determinants of resistance (Poiseuille’s Law)?

A

○ Length of the tube (L): R ∝ L
○ Radius of the tube (r): R ∝ 1/r^4 (major determinant, physiologically regulated)
○ Viscosity (η) of the fluid: R ∝ η

33
Q

How is the radius of a blood vessel regulated?

A

Through vasoconstriction (contraction of vascular smooth muscle, decreasing radius and increasing resistance) and vasodilation (relaxation of vascular smooth muscle, increasing radius and decreasing resistance)

34
Q

Define vascular conductance and its relationship to resistance.

A

Conductance is the inverse of resistance. Increased conductance means increased vasodilation and blood flow.

35
Q

Explain the role of elastic recoil in arteries.

A

Elastic recoil helps maintain blood pressure and continuous flow by pushing blood forward as the arteries recoil after being stretched by the heart’s contraction.

36
Q

What are the fundamental principles of blood flow in the cardiovascular system?

A

○ Blood flows due to pressure gradients created by the heart’s contraction
○ Pressure gradients and elastic recoil of arteries drive flow from arteries to veins
○ Vessel radius is the major determinant of vascular resistance, which influences blood flow

37
Q

What makes the heart an “aerobic” muscle?

A

● The heart muscle is highly vascularized, meaning it has a rich supply of blood vessels.
● It also has a high oxygen extraction rate from the blood, extracting 70-80% of available oxygen at rest.

38
Q

How does the heart increase its oxygen consumption (VO2) during exercise with only a small increase in oxygen extraction available?

A

The heart increases blood flow to meet the increased oxygen demand during exercise.

39
Q

Describe the role of mitochondria in heart energetics.

A

● The heart has the greatest concentration of mitochondria of any tissue, reflecting its high aerobic metabolism.
● It is efficient at utilizing both fat and lactate as fuel sources.
● During high-intensity exercise, lactate can contribute to approximately 50% of the heart’s total substrate utilization.

40
Q

What is the Rate Pressure Product (RPP) and what does it estimate?

A

● RPP = Systolic Blood Pressure (BPsys) x Heart Rate (HR).
● It estimates myocardial work/VO2 providing an indication of the heart’s oxygen consumption and workload.

41
Q

Explain the intrinsic and extrinsic control mechanisms of the heart.

A

● Intrinsic control: The heart has its own pacemaker activity originating in the SA node.
● Extrinsic Control: The heart is also regulated by the nervous system and endocrine system.

42
Q

Describe the role of the nervous system in regulating heart function.

A

● Cardiovascular center in the medulla coordinates heart function.
● Parasympathetic nervous system (PNS): releases acetylcholine, which decreases heart rate.
● Sympathetic nervous system (SNS): releases norepinephrine, which increases heart rate and contractility.
● Adrenal gland: releases epinephrine and norepinephrine, further increasing heart rate and contractility.
● Central command: originating in the brain stem, regulates the activity of the SA node

43
Q

What other factors can modify the cardiovascular response?

A

● Mechano and chemoreceptors can detect changes in blood pressure, oxygen levels, carbon dioxide levels, and pH, and send signals that adjust heart function.
● Baroreceptors help control the SNS and regulate blood pressure.

44
Q

What information does an ECG provide?

A

● An ECG (electrocardiogram) records the electrical events of the heart, showing the depolarization and repolarization of the atria and ventricles.
● This electrical activity precedes and is essential for the coordinated contraction of the heart muscle, allowing for efficient filling and emptying of blood.
● Heart rate monitors utilize the electrical activity measured by the ECG to determine heart rate.

45
Q

What are the two main periods of the cardiac cycle, and what happens during each?

A

● Systole: the period of heart contraction, during which blood is ejected from the ventricles.
● Diastole: the period of heart relaxation, during which the ventricles refill with blood.

46
Q

How does the duration of systole and diastole change during exercise?

A

At rest, the heart spends more time in diastole. During exercise, both systole and diastole are shortened, becoming more equal in duration.

47
Q

Define End Diastolic Volume (EDV) and End Systolic Volume (ESV)

A

● EDV (Preload): The volume of blood in the ventricle at the end of diastole, representing the amount of blood available to be pumped out.
● ESV: The volume of blood remaining in the ventricle after systole, representing the amount of blood not ejected.

48
Q

What is Stroke Volume (SV), and how is it calculated?

A

● Stroke Volume: the volume of blood ejected from the ventricle with each heartbeat.
● It is calculated as: SV = EDV - ESV.

49
Q

What factors influence Stroke Volume?

A

● Preload: The amount of blood returning to the atria. Increased preload stretches the ventricle and leads to a more forceful contraction, increasing SV.
● Ventricular Size: Both wall thickness and cavity dimensions impact the volume of blood the ventricle can hold and eject.
● Contractility: The force of contraction of the heart muscle. Increased contractility results in a greater SV.
● Afterload: The pressure the ventricle must overcome to eject blood into the aorta. Increased afterload reduces SV

50
Q

What is Ejection Fraction (EF), and how is it calculated?

A

● Ejection Fraction: The percentage of EDV ejected during each contraction.
● It’s an indicator of ventricular performance.
● Calculated as: (SV / EDV) * 100

51
Q

How does EF change during exercise?

A

EF increases with exercise

52
Q

What is the Frank-Starling Mechanism?

A

The Frank-Starling Mechanism describes the relationship between preload and stroke volume. It states that the greater the stretch of the ventricular muscle (due to increased preload), the more forceful the contraction, leading to an increased stroke volume.

53
Q

How do you increase EDV during exercise?

A

● Muscle Pump: Muscle contractions during exercise help to return blood to the heart, increasing venous return and therefore EDV.
● Respiratory Pump: Changes in intrathoracic pressure during breathing assist in venous return, enhancing EDV.
● Venoconstriction: Constriction of veins reduces venous pooling and increases venous return to the heart, boosting EDV.
● Redistribution of Cardiac Output: During exercise, blood flow is redirected towards the active muscles and away from less active organs, increasing the amount of blood returning to the heart and contributing to a higher EDV.

54
Q

What are the sympathetic effects on contractility?

A

● Increased sympathetic activity during exercise increases the strength, rate of contraction, and rate of relaxation of the heart muscle.
● The faster relaxation facilitates filling.

55
Q

What is Afterload?

A

● Afterload: The pressure that the ventricle must overcome to eject blood into the aorta.
● A major determinant of afterload is aortic pressure.

56
Q

How does Afterload affect stroke volume?

A

● An increase in afterload generally decreases stroke volume.
● However, in a healthy heart during exercise, increases in contractility typically offset the effects of increased afterload, maintaining or even increasing stroke volume

57
Q

What is Cardiac Output (Q), and how is it calculated?

A

● Cardiac Output: The volume of blood pumped by the ventricle per minute.
● It represents the effectiveness of the heart as a pump.
● Calculated as: Q = Heart Rate x Stroke Volume

58
Q

What are typical values for cardiac output at rest and during maximal exercise?

A

● Rest: Q ~ 5 L/min
● Maximal Exercise: Q can exceed 30 L/min in athletes!

59
Q

Define Blood Pressure.

A

● Blood Pressure: the pressure exerted by blood against the walls of the blood vessels.
● It’s an indicator of how hard the heart is working.
● Calculated as: BP = Cardiac Output x Total Peripheral Resistance

59
Q

How is increased cardiac output achieved during exercise?

A

Through increases in both heart rate and stroke volume.

60
Q

Describe Hypotension and its causes.

A

● Hypotension: Low blood pressure, typically defined as <90/60 mmHg.
● Causes: low blood volume, venous pooling, certain medications, endocrine responses (e.g., thyroid issues), heart failure, shock, orthostatic intolerance, etc.

61
Q

Describe Hypertension and its associated factors.

A

● Hypertension: High blood pressure.
● Associated with: atherosclerosis, diet, obesity, diabetes, stress, inactivity, aging, genetics, etc.

62
Q

What are the health consequences of Hypertension?

A

● Hypertension can lead to damage to blood vessels (atherosclerosis), increasing the risk of heart attack, stroke, and other cardiovascular diseases.
● It can also damage organs like the kidneys, leading to renal disease.
● Untreated hypertension can cause blood vessels to weaken and rupture, leading to serious complications.

63
Q

What are the two types of blood pressure regulation?

A

● Short-term regulation: primarily mediated by baroreceptors, which respond quickly to changes in blood pressure.
● Long-term regulation: involves the kidneys and hormonal mechanisms that control blood volume and vascular resistance.

64
Q

What are Baroreceptors, and where are they located?

A

● Baroreceptors: Stretch receptors located in the carotid sinus and aortic arch.
● They detect changes in blood pressure by sensing the stretch of the arterial walls.

65
Q

How do Baroreceptors regulate blood pressure?

A

● When blood pressure increases, baroreceptors are stretched, leading to an increase in afferent nerve firing to the cardiovascular control center in the brainstem.
● This triggers a decrease in sympathetic nervous system activity and an increase in parasympathetic activity, leading to:
- Vasodilation (decreased TPR)
- Decreased heart rate
- Decreased stroke volume
●These responses work to lower blood pressure back to normal.

66
Q

How does the Baroreceptor Reflex function change during exercise?

A

● The baroreceptor reflex continues to operate during exercise, but its set point is reset to a higher level.
● This means that a higher blood pressure is required to trigger the same level of baroreceptor response as at rest.

67
Q

What is the benefit of Baroreceptor Resetting during exercise?

A

● Allows for a greater increase in sympathetic nervous system activity during exercise.
● This results in:
- Vasoconstriction in inactive tissues, redirecting blood flow to active muscles.
- Increased perfusion pressure for active tissues, ensuring adequate oxygen and nutrient delivery.

68
Q

How does blood pressure change during incremental aerobic exercise?

A

● Systolic blood pressure: Increases progressively to max, primarily due to the increase in cardiac output required to meet the demands of exercising muscles.
● Diastolic blood pressure: Remains relatively stable or may slightly decrease during light-to-moderate aerobic exercise due to vasodilation in active muscles, reducing TPR.
○ May increase slightly at high exercise intensities due to increased cardiac output and muscular tension, which can increase TPR.

69
Q

How does blood pressure change during strength exercise?

A

● Muscle force above ~50% MVC occludes blood flow, leading to an increase in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure.
● This effect is more pronounced during prolonged, intense contractions (isometric exercise).
● Valsalva maneuver can contribute to a further increase in blood pressure.
○ However, brief Valsalva maneuvers during strength training are not typically considered to significantly increase the risk of cardiovascular events.
● The large muscle mass and vasculature in the legs can lead to particularly high blood pressures during leg exercises (e.g., leg press).

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Kin 200 (7 decks)

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