Cardiovascular System 42.4

Question 1

What is vertebrate blood?

Answer 1

connective tissue consisting of cells suspended in a liquid matrix that supports that contents of blood and makes up the majority of blood volume called plasma.

Question 2

Plasma

Answer 2

Dissolved in the plasma are ions and proteins that, together with the blood cells, function in osmotic regulation, transport and defense. Inorganic salts in the form of dissolved ions are an essential component of the blood. Bulk of it is composed of water and helps dissolve solute (solvent).

Question 3

Why should plasma electrolytes be kept within narrow concentration ranges?

Answer 3

the concentration of ions in plasma directly affects the composition of the interstitial fluid, where many of these ions have a vital role in muscle and nerve activity.

Question 4

What are fibronogens?

Answer 4

clotting factors that help plug leaks when the blood vessels are injured

Question 5

Difference between plasma and interstitial fluid?

Answer 5

Plasma has a much higher protein concentration

Question 6

What are platelets?

Answer 6

cell fragments that come from cells from megakaryocytes, megakaryocytes stick cytoplasmic extensions out into openings within blood vessels and force of blood flow will shear off extension creating the platelets. presence varies depending on circumstance. that are involved in the clotting process

Question 7

What two classes of cells are in blood?

Answer 7

red blood cells: transport oxygen, composed of hemoglobin and enzyme

white blood cells: function in defense

Question 8

How does the shape of erythrocytes enhance the rate of diffusion of oxygen across the plasma membrane?

Answer 8

thinner in the center than at the edges increases surface area to volume ratio

Question 9

What do mature mammalian erythrocytes lack?

Answer 9

Nuclei, leaving more space for hemoglobin, the ion containing protein that transports oxygen

Question 10

what do erythrocytes lack?

Answer 10

mitochondria, organelles

Question 11

how do erythrocytes generate ATP?

Answer 11

anaerobic metabolism b/c mitochondria isn’t there for oxidative phosphorylation. oxygen transport would be less efficient if erythrocytes were aerobic and consumed some of the oxygen they carry.

anaerobic fermentation is part of allows for production of ATP but not as much as aerobic. only human cells that go through fermentation.

Question 12

Binding of erythrocytes to hemoglobin

Answer 12

As erythrocytes pass through the capillary beds of lungs, gills, or other respiratory organs, oxygen diffuses into the erythrocytes and bind to hemoglobin. In the systemic capillaries, O2 dissociates from hemoglobin and diffuses into body cells.

Question 13

Sickle cell disease

Answer 13

An abnormal form of hemoglobin polymerizes into aggregates. Because the concentration of hemoglobin in erythrocyes is so high, these polymerize and form a gel distorting the erythrocyte into an elongated curved shape. This abnormality results from a point mutation in the aa sequence of hemooglobin at a single position, affecting mRNA and codon. Goes from polar to nonpolar.

Mutated hemoglobin in oxygen deficient environment: hemoglobin becomes deoxygenated bc mutated hemoglobin does’t bind oxygen well.

sickled cells agglutinate: Sickled cells often lodge in arterioles and capillaries, preventing delivery of oxygen and nutrients and removal of co2 and wastes. Blood vessel blockage and resulting organ swelling frequently result in severe pain. Sickled cells frequently rupture, reducing the number of red blood cells available for oxygen transport.

Question 14

How many types of leukocytes does the blood contain?

Answer 14

five

Question 15

Function of leukocytes?

Answer 15

To fight infections. Some are phagocytic, engulfing and digesting microorganisms and debris from the body’s own dead cells. Leukocytes can go through amplifications during immune response.

Other leukocytes, called lymphocytes, mount immune responses against foreign substances.

Question 16

Where are leukocytes found that erythrocytes aren’t?

Answer 16

outside the circulatory system, patrolling interstitial fluid and the lymphatic system.

Question 17

Platelets

Answer 17

pinched off cytoplasmic fragments of specialized bone marrow cells and have no nuclei. They serve both structural and molecular functions of blood clotting.

Question 18

What feedback mechanism is sensitive to oxygen levls and controls erythrocyte production?

Answer 18

If oxygen level falls, the kidneys synthesize and secrete the hormone erythropoietin (EPO) that stimulates the generation of more erythrocytes.

Physicians use reombinant EPO to treat anemia, a condition of lower than normal erythrocyte or hemoglobin levels that decreases the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood.

Question 19

What is the key mechanical event in blood clotting?

Answer 19

Coagulation- the conversion of the liquid components of blood in a solid- a blood clot.

Question 20

What is the inactive form of the coagulant?

Answer 20

fibronogen

Question 21

What happens when an injury exposes the proteins in a broken blood vessel wall to blood constituents (hemostasis)?

Answer 21

The exposed proteins attract platelets which gather at the site of injury releasing clotting factors. These clotting factors trigger a cascade of reactions leading to the formaation of an active enzyme, thrombin, from an inactive form, prothrombin. Thrombin in turn converts fibrinogen to fibrine, which aggregates into threads that form the framework of the clot.

Question 22

What happens if a mutations block a step in the clotting process?

Answer 22

can cause hemophilia, a disease characterized by excessive bleeding and bruising from even minor cuts and bumps

Question 23

What type of loop does clotting involve?

Answer 23

Positive feedback loop. Initially, the clotting recations convert only some of the prothrombin at the clot site to thrombin. However, thrombin itself stiumulates the enzymatic cascade, leading to more conversion of prothrombin to thrombin and thus driving clotting to completion.

Question 24

What is a thrombus?

Answer 24

Clots within a blood vessel blocking the flow of blood, contributing to atherosclerosis. if it breaks off and flows it can impede blood flow from a small blood vessel, embolus.

Question 25

Atherosclerosis

Answer 25

the hardening of arteries by accumulation of lipid deposits causing plaque buildup. A key player in the development of atherosclerosis is cholesterol, a steroid that is important for maintaining normal membrane fluidity in animal cells.

damage to the arterial lining results in inflammation. leukocytes are attracted to the inflamed area and begin to take up lipid, including cholesterol. As the plaque grows, the walls of the artery become thick and stiff, and the obstruction of the artery increases. If the plaque ruptures, a thrombic can form in the artery, potentially triggering a heart attack or a stroke.

small patchy thicking referre to athromas making walls thicker and stiffer. these changes are initated by damages taht take place within endothelial cells and when endothelium is injured that promotes the accumulation of lipids that can oxideize within the inner most layer.

Question 26

Types of particles in cholesterol that travels in blood plasma?

Answer 26

1) Low density lipoportein (LDL): Deliver to adipost tissue where they are stored. Then, delivers cholesterol to cells for membrane production from the blood.
2) Very low density: absorb LDL through endomediated endocytosis and then digest it using lysosome enzymes and release choelsterol for use.
3) High-density lipoprotein (HDL): scavenges excess cholesterol for return to the liver. Then liver removes cholesterol and eliminate it.

Individuals with high ration of LDL to HDL are at substantially increased risk for atherosclerosis. LDL oxidizes damaging neighboring cells and recruit macrophages and become engorged with LDL through phagocytosis (foam cells) .

Smooth muscle cells begin to go through cell division and thats taking place from the middle tunic and deposit collagen and elastic fibers, thickening the inner layer and we end up with plaque and the plaque consistes with dead and dying foam cells and then will cause a protrusion invading the vessel lumen and having that protrusion decreases the amount of effective blood flow.

Question 27

What is a myocardial infarction? insufficient supply of blood

Answer 27

the damage of death of cardiac muscle tissue resulting from blockage of one or more coronary arteries, which supply oxygen rich blood to the heart muscle. Such blockage can destroy cardiac muscle quickly because the constantly beating heart requires a steady supply of oxygen. if a large enough portion of the heart is affected, the heart will stop beating.

recovery can be done if heart can function in a coordinated way

myocardium largest portion of the heart wall

Question 28

Are coronary arteries more susceptible to atherosclerotic plaques or thrombi?

Answer 28

yes because they are smaller in diameter

Question 29

Stroke

Answer 29

death of nervous tissue in the brain due to lack of oxygen. Strokes usually result from rupture or blockage of arteries in the head.

Question 30

A sign of atherosclerosis?

Answer 30

Angina pectoris- partial blockage of the coronary arteries may cause occasional chest pain

Question 31

Hypertension

Answer 31

Another contributor to heart attack and stroke. Chronic high bp damages the endothelium that lines the arteries (can cause atherosclerosis and cause this to be worse), promoting plaque formation.

ventricles are working harder and myocardium eventually becomes stretched and becomes less efficient

cigarettes can be a factor, stimulate myocardium to beat faster and vasoconstriction promoting myocardium esclemia (less blood flow towards the heart)

Question 32

Hemocrit

Answer 32

the packed cell volume, percentage of cell volume composed of erythrocytes.

Higher in men because of androgens which stimulate erythocyte production.

reproductive age of women so theres blood loss

inverse relationship with body fat and body fat is higher in women

Question 33

what do we see in buffy coat

Answer 33

leukocytes and platelets

Question 34

What’re granulocytes and agranulocytes?

Answer 34

type of leukocytes in which granular states are found and agranulocytes have no stains found in them

neutrophils- granulocytes, most abundant type of leukocyte, aggressive in attack on bacteria, neutrophilia occurs in response to bacterial infections. You can assess a response in bacterial infections due to an increase of neutrophils

eosinophils- granulocyte, secrete chemicals to weaken or destroy large pathogen liek tapeworms that cant go through phagocytes

basophils- granulocyte, rarest, secret basodialaters change the diamater of blood vessels and are anticoagulants

lmyphocytes- agranulocytes, second to neutrophil in abundance

monocyte- agranulocytes, give rise to macrophages, antigen presenting cell

Question 35

What structural proteins are found in erythrocytes?

Answer 35

spectrin and actin, found in cytoplasmic shape of the plasma membrane. these cytoskeletal proteins help maintain biconcave shape and is beneficial because red blood cells are deformal and durability .

thoughts maybe shape can help contribute to S.A and reduction of spinning and turbulence

Question 36

hemolysis

Answer 36

destroy the cells themselves but in an effort to do this anemia results (diminished hematocrit value). Hypoxic condition (low oxygen because we’d have less erythrocytes) and anemia will then stimulate sickling. So process entering areas where oxygen concentration is low induces the polymerization.

chronic hypoxic conditions can cause fatigue, impacy mental development, deeterioation of heart and other organs

Question 37

counteracting hypoxia

Answer 37

there will be hematopoetic tissues that will activate but the level of activation seen in tissues causes bones to enlarge and be misshapen

an example of pleotropy, multiple phenotypic effects that arise from a change in a single gene

Question 38

how is sickle useful

Answer 38

places in where parasites that causes malaria is found, the sickle shape because they’re detremental to the parasite that feeds on it. This is a heterozygous individual that is pretty resistant to the disease caused by that parasite.

Question 39

hematopoetic stem cells

Answer 39

are multipotent

water can be obtained from absorption through digestive tract

Question 40

Hemostasis

Answer 40

the natural process of stopping the flow of blood

vascular spasm- most immediate response to blood loss and its constriction of the broken vessels. useful bc it helps reduce blood loss for 20-30 minutes and help fibrin and thrombin come to help

platelets can form a plug

Question 41

Under normal conditions, platelets dont…

Answer 41

stick to each other and dont adhere to endothelium of our blood vessel due to chemicals released by our endothelium to prevent aggregation (clots). But when endothelium is damaged the collagen fibers are exposed and platelets begin adhering to one another. As platelets aggregrate they induce more platelet (positive feedback), however platelets are not sufficient.

Question 42

cholesterol

Answer 42

type of structural lipid, its not oxidized for fuel. liver is capable of making a large percentage of cholesterol and the rest for our diet.

cholesterol is bases in biosalts (utilized in digestion of fast), steroid hormone synthesis and vitamin D.

nonpolar and is going to depend on lipoproteins as a means to move.

Question 43

lipoproteins have…

Answer 43

phospholipid, cholesterol

Question 44

aneuresym

Answer 44

bursting of a major vessel. arterial walls can become thinner and blood flow can cause them to swell and may lead to burst.

cerebral artery burst can lead to death of that tissue which is a hemorrage based stroke

Question 45

aspirin

Answer 45

serve as an inhibitor in a pathway associated with inflammatory factors