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PHGY 210 > Cardiovascular > Flashcards

Cardiovascular Flashcards

1
Q

What factors will increase the rate of diffusion?

A

Increasing the concentration gradient
Increasing area
Decreasing distance

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2
Q

True/False? Insects have open circulation where blood flows freely throughout the body

A

False, uses hemolymph

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3
Q

How many chambers do fish hearts have?

A

2

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4
Q

Do all reptiles have 3 chambers?

A

No

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5
Q

What other type of animal has 4 chambered hearts?

A

Birds

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6
Q

What are the 5 components of Hemodynamics?

A 
Volume
Flow
Pressure
Resistance
Compliance
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7
Q

What is the average blood volume?

A

5L (75 mL/kg)

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8
Q

What is 1 unit of blood?

A

750 mL

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9
Q

What is the average stroke volume?

A

70 mL

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10
Q

The venous system is _______ whereas the arterial system is _______

A

Capacitive

Resistive

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11
Q

Name the peripheral organ that receives the most blood flow

A

Skeletal muscle

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12
Q

How do you measure flow?

A

Flow = V/T = A*v

mean velocity since v is not necessarily the same

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13
Q

What are units of flow?

A

cm3/sec (or mL/sec)

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14
Q

List the major types of vessels that blood passes through, beginning at the left ventricle

A 
Aorta
Large artery
Small artery
Arteriole
Capillaries 
Venule
Vein 
Vena Cava
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15
Q

Blood velocity ______ at the capillary while total surface area of vascular bed _______

A

Decreases

Increases

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16
Q

What is a standard blood pressure?

A

120/80 mm Hg

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17
Q

True/False? You can have pressure but no flow

A

True, “pressure energy” stored in system

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18
Q

What causes flow in a vessel?

A

Difference in forces due to viscous losses within fluid longitudinal pressure gradient

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19
Q

Mean blood pressure drops the most over the _____

A

Arteries and arterioles

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20
Q

Why is pulmonary pressure lower than systemic pressure?

A

The blood has a shorter distance to travel

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21
Q

What is hydrostatic pressure?

A

The pressure exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at a given point within the fluid due to gravity

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22
Q

How do you calculate hydrostatic pressure?

A

P = pgh (p = “rho”)

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23
Q

How would you calculate central venous pressure with a manometer?

A

Insert catheter attached to manometer into right atrium/ventricle

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24
Q

What is perfusion pressure and how is it calculated?

A 
The difference in pressure between a vessel inlet and a vessel outlet
dP = Pin - Pout
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25
Q

Why do we approximate dP to Pa?

A

Because Pa&raquo_space;> Pv

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26
Q

How do you calculate vessel resistance?

A

Resistance = dP/Flow

or Flow = dP/Resistance

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27
Q

What causes body heat?

A

laminar flow: frictional losses in a viscous flow (also causes loss of pressure)

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28
Q

What causes a pressure gradient?

A

Fall in pressure due to viscous flow (also generates heat)

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29
Q

What does poiseuille’s law indicate?

A

Resistance is proportional to viscosity and the inverse of r^4

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30
Q

How do you calculate equivalent resistance in vessels in series?

A

R = R1+R2

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31
Q

How do you calculate equivalent resistance in vessels in parallel?

A

1/R = 1/R1+1/R2

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32
Q

Which is thicker, a vein or an artery?

A

Artery

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33
Q

Which has more elastic layers, a vein or an artery?

A

Artery

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34
Q

Which has more resistance, a vein or an artery?

A

Artery

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35
Q

Which has a larger lumen, a vein or an artery?

A

Vein

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36
Q

How do you calculate compliance?

A

1/Slope of pressure/volume graph
Or,
compliance = dV/dP

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37
Q

Which has larger compliance, a vein or an artery?

A

Vein

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38
Q

What is another name for the Right AV valve?

A

Tricuspid valve

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39
Q

What is the name for the valve separating the right ventricle from the pulmonary artery?

A

Pulmonary semilunar valve

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40
Q

What is the name of the valve separating the left atrium from the left ventricle?

A

Bicuspid valve aka mitral valve

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41
Q

What are the 4 layers of the heart wall?

A 
From outside to inside:
Pericardium
Pericardial space
Epicardium
Myocardium
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42
Q

What prevents backflow of blood from the ventricles to the atria?

A

Papillary muscles and Chordae tendineae

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43
Q

Name the 8 great vessels

A 
Superior Vena Cava
Inferior Vena Cava
Right pulmonary artery
Right pulmonary veins
Aorta
Left pulmonary artery
Left pulmonary veins
Pulmonary Trun
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44
Q

Which ventricular free wall is thicker, and why?

A

Left, because it has to push blood further

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45
Q

What happens when your papillary muscle is ruptured?

A

Mitral regurgitation

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46
Q

What is the path of myocardial AP?

A 
SA valve
atria
AV node
Bundle of his
Bundle branches
Purkinje Fibres
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47
Q

How do APs travel from cell to cell?

A

Nexus or Gap Junctions

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48
Q

Describe a gap junctional channel

A

2 sets of Hexameric hemi-channels

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49
Q

At rest, the potential voltage inside a cell is _____ and _______ on the outside

A

Negative, Positive

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50
Q

True/False? Sodium and Potassium are the only ions that flow during local circuit currents

A

False, all ions flow

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51
Q

True/False? Only Cations are involved in local circuit currents

A

False, Negative ions flow in opposite direction

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52
Q

True/False? A repolarization wave follows the depolarization wave

A

True

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53
Q

True/False? Both intra- and extracellular flows of current are necessary for propagation to occur

A

True

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54
Q

Describe the flow of ions during local circuit currents

A

Intracellular: Cations inside the depolarized cell flow into resting cells through gap junctions

Extracellular: Cations from the resting cell flow to depolarized cell

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55
Q

What does an ECG measure?

A

Extracellular voltage

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56
Q

What is used as a reference voltage for an ECG?

A

Right leg

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57
Q

What is the amplitude of an ECG reading? What about an intracellular recording?

A

1 mV

100 mV

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58
Q

What does the P wave represent?

A

Atrial excitation

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59
Q

What does the Q wave represent?

A

The beginning of ventricular contraction

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60
Q

What does the RS segment represent?

A

The end of ventricular contraction

61
Q

What is being excited during the T wave?

A

NOTHING

it’s the repolarization of the ventricles

62
Q

Do the atria repolarize? Where is it represented on the ECG?

A

Yes, but it is hidden by the QRS complex

63
Q

What are the 3 bipolar limb leads?

A 
I = VLA - VRA
II = VLL - VRA
III = VLL -VLA
64
Q

What are two key differences of ventricular action potential compared to nerve or skeletal AP?

A
  • Duration much longer (plateau)

- Resting potential more hyperpolarized

65
Q

What are the three main types of ion channels in cardiac cells?

A
  • Sodium channels (fastest inward current)
  • Potassium channels (a whole bunch)
  • Calcium (stays open much longer
66
Q

Why is the cell membrane potential most similar to Ek?

A

Because the permeability of Potassium channels at rest is much higher than that of Sodium or Calcium

67
Q

True/False? Sinus nodes have a resting potential in between that of myocardial cells and nerve cells

A

False, they have no resting potential at all

68
Q

What causes the upstroke in a Sinus node cell and why?

A

ICaL, because there are no INa in sinus node cells

69
Q

What are fast and slow APs? which structures have them?

A

Fast: 0.5-5 m/sec
Slow: 0.01-0.05 m/sec

Slow: 
SA and AV node
Fast: Ventricular muscle
Atrial muscle
Bundle of His
Bundle branches
Purkinje Fibres
70
Q

What is the average heart rate range and what happens when you go above or below that range?

A

[60, 100] bpm
< 60 bpm, Sinus bradycardia
> 100 bpm, Sinus tachycardia
Respiratory sinus arrhythmia (physiological): rate inc. during ins., rate dec. during exp.

71
Q

What is an epicardial sock array

A

A sock you put on a heart to measure cardiac electrical activity

72
Q

What is circus movement reentry?

A

When a depolarization wave circuit isn’t completed (encounters an obstacle, usually scar tissue) and loops back on itself
Leads to fibrillation

73
Q

How does depolarization cause contraction of muscle?

A

1) Depolarization leads to opening of Ca channels in T-Tubules
2) Increase of Ca into cytosol
3) Ca binds to ryanodine receptors in sarcoplasmic reticulum
4) opening of Ca Channels
5) …
6) contraction

74
Q

True/False? Calcium concentration is heavily linked to action potential

A

True

75
Q

True/False? Excitation and contraction occur simultaneously

A

False

76
Q

Why do aortic and pulmonary valves open during systole?

A

Isovolumetric contraction of ventricles increases ventricular pressure to the point that it exceeds pressure in the pulmonary artery and aorta

77
Q

What valves are open during isovolumetric ventricular relaxation?

A

None (pressures aren’t strong enough to open valves)

78
Q

What valves open during diastole and why?

A

AV valves, because the pressure in the ventricles dropped below that of the atria

79
Q

What causes the audible heart beats?

A

The closing of Mitral and tricuspid valves (S1), and Pulmonary and bicuspid valves (S2)

80
Q

How do you calculate stroke volume?

A

End diastolic volume - end systolic volume

81
Q

How do you calculate ejection fraction?

A

Stroke volume/End diastolic volume (%)

82
Q

How do you calculate Cardiac output? What is its average value?

A

Heart Rate x Stroke volume

5 L/min

83
Q

What is Starling’s Law of the heart?

A

A larger end-diastolic volume will increase stroke volume

84
Q

How is mean arterial pressure calculated?

A

MAP = diastolic pressure + .33(pulse pressure) = 100 mm Hg

85
Q

What does the windkessel effect show us?

A

How a discrete series of input can become a continuous output

86
Q

What is the direct method of measuring blood pressure?

A

Stabbing someone in the neck and seeing how much blood comes out

87
Q

What are the three indirect methods of blood pressure measurement

A

Palpation
Auscultation
Oscillometry

88
Q

What is the palpation method of bp measurement and what is its downside?

A

Squeezing off blood flow to arm, feeling artery and releasing pressure in cuff until pulse is felt
Reports systolic blood pressure only

89
Q

What is the method of auscultation?

A

Using a stethoscope to listen for Korotkoff sounds
Onset of korotkoff corresponds to systolic pressure
End of korotkoff sounds corresponds to diastolic pressure

90
Q

True/False? Korotkoff sounds are the sounds of heart valves closing

A

False

91
Q

What is the oscillometric method of calculating bp?

A

Using algorithms and computers to determine blood pressure based on oscillations in cuff pressur

92
Q

How do you calculate total peripheral resistance?

A

(MAP-Pra)/CO ~ MAP/CO

MAP = HR x SV x TPR

93
Q

Why is pulmonary vein pressure lower than pulmonary artery pressure?

A

Resistance is higher

94
Q

True/False? The coronary artery can only increase its blood flow to compensate for changes in perfusion pressure

A

False, it goes both ways

95
Q

What are the two mechanisms of autoregulation?

A

Metabolic: decreased O2, increased Metabolites

Myogenic: decreased vessel-wall stretch in organ

96
Q

True/False? The two mechanisms of autoregulation act asynchronously

A

False

97
Q

True/False? In local metabolic control, blood flow adjusts to metabolic need

A

True

98
Q

The parasympathetic nervous system secretes ____ on the _____ of the
sinoatrial valve, whereas norepinephrine secretes _____ on the _____

These neurotransmitters ___ and ____ heart rate respectively

A 
Acetylcholine
Muscarinic receptor
Norepinephrine
Beta-Adrenergic
Slow down
Speed up
99
Q

Which drugs slow heart rate?

A

Atropine (parasympathetic agonist)

Beta-blockers (sympathetic antagonist)

100
Q

Which drug increases heart rate?

A

Beta agonists (sympathetic agonist)

101
Q

True/False? Increased Acetylcholine on beta-adrenergic receptors in the myocardium increase Force developed during contraction and decrease duration of systole

A

True

102
Q

How is increasing contractility through neuronal control different from Frank Starling Law?

A

Frank Starling law is a proportional increase in stroke volume and end diastolic volume

Neuronal control shifts to a different curve (translates the graph upwards)

103
Q

Why change vessel diameter?

A

1) Set up appropriate flow for each organ (might involve redistribution of flow)
2) To obtain mean blood pressure BP = COxTPR

104
Q

What are three ways to change vessel diameter?

A

Neuronally
Hormonally
Locally

Resting tone = basal tone + neurogenic tone

105
Q

What kind of receptor does the sympathetic NS control vessel tone with

A

alpha-adrenergic receptor

106
Q

Epinephrine and norepinephrine are both what (in terms of vessel tone control)?

A

alpha and beta agonists

107
Q

What is the fastest method of changing blood pressure?

A

Baroreceptor reflex

108
Q

What is the slowest method of changing blood pressure?

A

Renal-body fluid pressure control

109
Q

Where are the baroreceptors located?

A

Aortic arch and carotid sinus

110
Q

True/False? Baroreceptor action potential frequency is proportional to mean arterial pressure

A

True

111
Q

What happens when arterial baroreceptors decrease their firing rate?

A

(means that arterial pressure has decreased)
Increased sympathetic tone
Decreased parasympathetic tone

112
Q

True/False? denervating the baroreceptor will alter the mean BP

A

False

113
Q

Where are peripheral chemoreceptors located?

A

Aortic body

Carotid artery

114
Q

Increase in pressure diuresis is linked with a _____ in aldosterone

A

Decrease

115
Q

Describe the RAAS system

A

1) Kidneys detect decrease in bp and secrete Renin
0) Liver produces Angiotensinogen transiently
3) renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I
4) Angiotensin I is converted to Angiotensin II in the lungs by Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)
5. 1) Angiotensin II acts on arterioles to constrict them
5. 2) Angiotensin II acts on brain to release ADH which promotes fluid retention
5. 3) Angiotensin II acts on adrenal glands to produce more Aldosterone
5. 3.1) Aldosterone acts on kidneys to retain Na and H20

116
Q

What happens to blood pressure when Standard Man stands up?

A

Systolic: decreases
Mean: unchanged
Diastolic: increases

117
Q

What happens to right atrial mean pressure when Standard Man stands up?

A

Drops drastically

118
Q

What happens to cardiac output when Standard Man stands up?

A

Drops by 0.75

119
Q

What happens to Stroke volume when standard man stands up?

A

Drops by half

120
Q

What happens to heart rate when Standard Man stands up?

A

Increases

121
Q

What happens to forearm blood flow when Standard man stands up?

A

Drops then rises

122
Q

What happens to peripheral blood flow when Standard Man stands up?

A

Decreases

123
Q

What happens to central blood volume when Standard Man stands up?

A

Decreases

124
Q

How is Cardiac Output preserved when Standard Man stands up?

A

CO= SV x HR
Stroke volume drops by half,
Heart Rate increases by 1.5
-> CO decreased by 0.75

125
Q

How is MAP preserved when CO drops?

A

MAP = CO x TPR
1 = 3/4 x ?
TPR increases 4/3x

126
Q

How does one test bp reflexes?

A

Tilt-Table testing

127
Q

What happens if you stand for too long?

A

Orthostatic hypotension

128
Q

How do you prevent orthostatic hypotension?

A

Periodic contraction of calf muscles

129
Q

What happens to Standard Man’s arterial blood pressure when he flexes his calves?

A

Systolic: increases
Mean: unchanged
Diastolic: decreases

130
Q

What happens to Standard Man’s Right atrial mean pressure when he flexes his calves?

A

Shoots back up

131
Q

What happens to Standard Man’s Cardiac output when he flexes his calves?

A

Shoots back up

132
Q

What happens to Standard Man’s Stroke Volume when he flexes his calves?

A

Shoots back up

133
Q

What happens to Standard Man’s Central blood volume when he flexes his calves?

A

Shoots back up

134
Q

What happens to Standard Man’s Heart rate when he flexes his calves?

A

Drops back down

135
Q

What happens to Standard Man’s Forearm blood flow when he flexes his calves?

A

Shoots back up

136
Q

Why does muscle pumping work?

A

Venous valves prevent blood from flowing away from heart

137
Q

True/False? Starling forces push blood out of capillaries

A

False, pushes lymph out

138
Q

Where does lymph re-enter circulation?

A

Through the vena cava

139
Q

What happens to heart rate during exercise?

A

Increases up to 3 times

140
Q

What happens to stroke volume during exercise?

A

Steadily increases (decreases at high HR)

141
Q

What happens to Cardiac output during exercise?

A

Increases 3x (proportional to heart)

142
Q

What happens to arterial blood pressure during exercise?

A

Systolic: increases
Mean: slight increase (1.2x)
Diastolic: barely any change

143
Q

What happens to total peripheral resistance during exercise?

A

Decreases to 0.4x

Vasodilation

144
Q

What happens to oxygen consumption during exercise?

A

Increases to 9x

145
Q

What happens to Oxygen difference during exercise?

A

Increases 3x

VO2 = CO x a-vO2

146
Q

What happens to maximum cardiac output after endurance training?

A

Increases

147
Q

What happens to heart rate after endurance training?

A

Resting heart rate decreases, rate of increases stays the same (still reaches the same max HR, but does so at higher work load)

148
Q

What happens to O2 consumption after endurance training?

A

Increases (hypertrophy of ventricular muscles)

149
Q

What is the difference in hypertrophy and hyperplasia?

A

Hypertrophy: increased cell size
Hyperplasia: increased cell count

PHGY 210 (5 decks)

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