Carbon Cycle & Energy Security Flashcards

Question

What is primary energy

Answer 1

Primary energy sources are the natural sources found in the earth, such as coal, oil and gas.

Answer 2

Secondary energy converts these sources into other forms, such as electricity for convenience

Answer 3

- A rich energy mix is made up of domestic and foreign sources; a country will have its own energy sources as well as importing from other nations; having a diverse mix of renewable and non- renewable sources

Answer 4

 Physical Availability: Fossil fuels, solar, wind, tidal and geothermal power depend upon location. Large power stations require flat and stable land to function correctly.  Cost: As supply decreases, costs increase. Prices are constantly fluctuating. Onshore oil deposits tend to be cheaper than offshore sights.  Technology: New technological developments have allowed oil to be extracted from deeper and more technically difficult environments. E.g. tar sands in Venezuela and Canada  Public Perception: There are cultural preferences around the world, some may be reluctant to adapt to new technology.  Levels of economic development: France can afford 78% of its energy to come from nuclear sources whilst poorer regions, such as Ethiopia, use sources like dung and crops for energy  Environmental priority: Costa Rica obtained 99% of its energy from renewable sources in 2015 as they are conscious of their environmental footprint

Answer 5

- Oil (40%) - vast reserves in Gulf of Mexico/ Alaska/ Canada - gas (25%) - abundance - coal (25%) - abundance Its economic growth is due to these fossil fuels, which are consumed by industries such as the pharmaceutical, chemical, domestic use and transport sector - North America has more nuclear reactors than any other country (103) – has huge uranium reserves -Less than 10% comes from HEP - most stations located on the East and West coasts where there is plenty of rainfall and fast-flowing rivers

Answer 6

Oil + Natural gas (65%) - vast reserves of both fuels in Venezuela and pipelines and oil tankers connect these supplies in the Middle East to the rest of the region - Greatest consumer of HEP due to heavy rainfall, fast-flowing rivers and large dams e.g. in Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina - Consumption of coal and nuclear minimal – deficits in coal and uranium reserves

Answer 7

- Energy mix dominated oil and HEP - Oil (48%) - HEP (35%) - Largest sugar cane producer in the world, predominately used in the production of ethanol fuel - Has the 6th largest Uranium reserves in the world – yet only has one nuclear reactor - Third largest Hydro-electric producer, HEP provides 80% of the country’s electricity supply - Co-owns the Itaipu HEP plant on the Parana River, located on the border between Brazil and Paraguay, which is the world’s second largest HEP plant

Answer 8

- Consumed mainly fossil fuels – oil provides 50% of energy needs and gas 45% - huge reserves in Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq and Kuwait - Small amount of coal

Answer 9

- Europe and Eurasia’s consumption shared equally by oil and natural gas (65%) – reserves of natural gas in Russia, UK and Norway - 20% - coal - supplied by nations such as Poland, UK, Kazakhstan coal is cheap and traditional – huge amounts of infrastructure available for the production of coal - 10% of energy used comes from Nuclear power as Western Europe can afford to import uranium - France, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan have reserves of uranium.

Answer 10

- Coal traditionally been the most important source of electricity generation - However, its role has decreased as other sources of electricity generation have become more financially and technically viable - Nowadays, gas is the single most important source of energy - Nuclear accounted for about one-fifth of total electricity generation, but its contribution has declined as older nuclear power stations have been decommissioned - Nuclear, bioenergy, waste, and wind (13%) - Gas, oil and coal (87%) o UK production of oil and gas in the North Sea has fallen rapidly o Domestic coal production has continued its long-term decline o Some nuclear power stations have closed, having reached the end of their productive lives, with other due for closure in the next decade

Answer 11

- Nuclear (79%) - 55,000 workers are employed - However, this may begin to decrease as there is increasing concern on health risks - HEP (14%) - Wind (0.5%) - small due to: local environmental objections – acoustic laws – high cost of installation

Answer 12

- Consumes mainly fossil fuels - coal (50%) - Oil (30%) - gas (15%) - China and India have vast coal deposits – cheap for them to generate electricity using coal - There are gas pipelines throughout the region and oil is taken by tanker to areas of demand - Consumes little HEP and nuclear energy - Most nuclear energy use is found in South Korea and Japan, which are deficient in fossil fuels and can afford the cost of nuclear power stations

Answer 13

- Population of 1.3 billion - It has recently undergone massive economic growth, accompanied by an increased demand for power -China is the largest producer and consumer of coal in the world with large deposits in the north and about half in the Shanxi province – roughly 13% of global reserves - Coal (67%) - Oil (25%) - Nuclear (4%) - Renewables (1%) - however the government is increasing this to 15% by 2020 - China has a large potential for HEP, due to its many rivers and mountain landscapes – has 12% of the global HEP recourses – Three Gorges Dam largest in the world -China has more than doubled its installed wind power capacity each year from 2005-2007, faster on a percentage basis than any other country, making it the eight largest wind-power producers in the world.

Answer 14

- Mainly fossil fuels - Coal (30%) - large reserves in South Africa - oil (40%) - large reserves in Nigeria, Libya and Algeria - Makes fossil fuels very cheap - HEP is not viable due to low rainfall, and nuclear energy is costly and unnecessary in a region which has other recourses

Answer 15

The composition of its energy supply in terms of consumption of different forms of energy

Answer 16

- Access to and consumption of energy recourses, both renewable and non-renewable, is not evenly distributed, and depends on physical factors, cost, technology and public perception. Some areas suffer from energy poverty, while others have a surplus

Answer 17

- Fossil fuels are unevenly spread, dependent on where fossilisation occurred in the past. - HEP requires rain, so is not a possibility in the Sahel region of Africa unless on a very small scale. - Solar power requires sunshine, so it would not be much use in Northern Europe - Wind power requires high and constant speed wind, so is best on the coast and on mountains - Land space is needed for power stations

Answer 18

- Extraction of raw materials is costly due to capital and labour needed - Markets can be volatile, meaning that higher extraction costs - Greater demand fuels exploration so TNCs only prospect areas near high demand

Answer 19

- Voters worrying about the greenhouse gas emissions force governments to change energy mix to favour greener fuels, changing the proportional supply of the different recourses - The costs of research and development may be partially funded by governments if it is beneficial to political agendas - International agreement is required before hydro-electric power can be harnessed on transboundary rivers, influencing the supply of this recourse

Answer 20

- Global demand for oil is set to expand - this growth is set to come from Asia, the Middle East and other non-EOCD countries - Of the MEDCs, the USA and Japan have increased consumption, but only by a small amount, whereas Germany and the UK have decreased their consumption due to more efficient use of their energy - NICs are increasing demand by the fastest rate. China and India have almost doubled their demand in 10 years due to rapid economic growth and a more affluent population moving into urban areas which have higher standards of living -Developing countries have much lower consumption - in general they have large populations living in rural areas and they have difficulty paying for their energy needs.

Answer 21

- Energy Pathways, which can be pipelines, transmission lines or shipping routes, are vital in transporting energy sources from producers to consumers – these pathways are high-risk areas, prone to piracy, theft, disruption and damage - Energy pathways are complex, exhibiting considerable levels of risk. They link producers and consumers through pipelines, shipping routes, electricity cables and tankers - There are more than 160,000 miles of oil pipeline on the USA alone

Answer 22

- Energy infrastructure refers to the exploitation, development and production of energy, such as oil rigs, pipelines, tankers, power stations, mining operations and electricity grids

Answer 23

- One high-risk pathway is the pipeline connecting Europe to Russia. - In 2006, Russia increased the price of gas for Ukraine and then in 2009 completely stopped supplying gas - Claimed Ukraine failed to pay in time - This caused a two-week dispute and led to a 16% increase in gas prices for the UK as gas passes through Ukraine to reach the UK. - In 2007, Belarus cut of Russia’s oil pipeline because of the high prices Russia demanded - This affected Germany and Poland, the latter being 96% dependant on imports

Answer 24

- Such disputes have again raised EU fears about its increasing reliance on energy supplies from Russia - Critics argue that Russia has a habit of manipulating gas and oil supplies for political purposes - Chancellor Angela Merkel has stated the dispute illustrated that Europe’s energy sources needed to be more diverse – thus the EU is looking to build interconnecting pipelines and power lines, such as electricity hook ups between Germany, Poland, France and Spain

Answer 25

- It crosses an earthquake belt which could damage the pipe, and spills could go unnoticed - Valdez port has strong weather conditions, and the Beaufort Sea is frozen most of the year - High snowfall endangers buildings causing possible collapse or limiting access to pumping stations, and the extreme cold makes pumping very difficult

Answer 26

- Long crude oil pipeline from the Azeri-Chirag-Gunashli oil field to the Mediterranean Sea - Connects Baku to Ceyhan (via Tbilisi) the capital of Georgia. It is the second-longest oil pipeline in the former Soviet Union - Pipeline bypasses Armenia, which has unresolved conflict with Azerbaijan over the status of certain regions in the area - It also crosses through Georgia, which has two unresolved separatist conflicts - Goes through the edges of the Kurdish region of turkey, which has seen a prolonged and bitter conflict with Kurdish separatists

Answer 27

- There are rich tar deposits within Canada which could reduce the nation’s dependency on imports whilst providing 33000 jobs - However, the extraction method for one barrel of tar sand oil is 3 times more energy extensive than producing one barrel of conventional oil - There is also lots of water required; each barrel of water needs 4 barrels of water which then becomes polluted and cannot be reused - Environmental impacts involve the removal if of Boreal Forest which is home to 45 unique species

Answer 28

Known as tar sands or extra heavy oil. Naturally occurring mixture of sand or clary, water and an extremely dense and viscous form of petroleum

Answer 29

- Currently, 50% of the UKs gas is imported, this will rise to 70% in the future - Fracking is a method used by the British Government to reduce this reliance on imports, especially since North Sea gas production is in decline - Estimations have suggested that Britain may have 26 trillion cubic feet of natural gas in its shale basins – this would fill domestic demand for decades - Jobs are created on both the fracking system and through energy production – this also guarantees the security of some employment already - However, there are issues related to the potential contamination from the released gas or the chemicals used in fracking – this cab increase the hazard for rivers and other water bodies - Fracking also acts as a catalyst for seismic events, which have become one of the most frequently quoted adverse effects.

Answer 30

Method of drilling employed when there are deep deposits of oil or gas underground. Occurs when there drilling occurs downwards and then horizontally. This allows oil and gas to be flowing from tight sands that we normally could not retrieve with conventional methods of drilling.

Answer 31

- The Arctic circle is a pristine environment thought to be home to huge oil-rich sea beds - Some estimates say up to 25% of the world’s undiscovered oil and gas may be located here - The USGS estimate that 1 billion-barrel fields would cost $US40 per barrel to extract, in comparison to $US2 in Saudi Arabia - The Arctic National Wildlife Reserve is under threat from energy development, but so far, the environment lobby has managed to hold the line against intense lobbying from oil companies - Russia and China have already become claiming sections of the Arctic as it shrinks, and oil exploration becomes easier.

Answer 32

- Renewable and Recyclable energy, including nuclear (Uranium is reused), wind and solar power, could reduce reliance on fossil fuels but come with their own costs and benefits. - Ideally, a diverse mix of sources is needed for energy security

Answer 33

- The United Kingdom was once a world leader in the development of nuclear power - The development of further nuclear power in the UK was disrupted by accidents at nuclear power stations at Three Mile Island in the USA (1979) and a much more serious event at Chernobyl in the Ukraine (1986) - A change in public perception of the nuclear power occurred during the first decade of the 21st century - In 2001 a consensus found that 67% of the UK public agreed that nuclear is needed as a part of the UK’s energy mix, with only 10% being opposed to nuclear power by 2009 - In 2008, the government led on new policy on nuclear energy - Increasing concern over greenhouse gas emissions and global warming led to a re-evaluation of nuclear power as a low-carbon form of energy production (target to reduce carbon emissions by 50% by 2050) - It became apparent that renewable energy recourses would not be able to fill the gap resulting from the closure of elderly power stations HOWEVER... - One of the key reasons for the UKs slow uptake of nuclear energy has been issues surrounding the disposal of nuclear waste - In areas where there is a nuclear reactor – radioactive waste will need to be stored on- site before it can be safely removed

Answer 34

The Chernobyl disaster in 1986 when a fire broke out in the nuclear reactor plant. 46 people were killed within a few days and since hundreds have died of early deaths due to cancer after exposure to the intense radiation.

Answer 35

- Costs 10% of what it did 20 years ago - Prices will decrease further as the technology improves over time - The USA is the world leader with 24.6% of production - Germany, Spain and China account for 40% of the world total

Answer 36

- Geothermal energy has a global capacity of 18,5000MW, with the USA generating 29% of this with plants in Alaska, California, Hawaii, Nevada and Utah. Advantages: cheap energy: - Costs of production are much less than those based on fossil fuels - 8.2 billion dollars saved by USA between 1970 and 2000 by changing from oil-based systems to Geo-thermal - Power stations last 30 years: clean on environment: self sufficient Disadvantages: - In some areas, small-scale use causes no real impact, but larger- scale use can do so: also causes steam pollution.

Answer 37

- Iceland is well known for its tectonic activity – it lies over a hotspot, the rising magma from this adds to the tectonic activity, and therefore to the geothermal potential - Iceland has a very high concentration of volcanoes, enabling 87% of Icelandic homes and public buildings to be heated with geothermal energy, and 26% of the country’s electricity to be generated the same way - This also supports nearly all economic activities – allows industry such as aluminium smelting, with no raw material recourse base in Iceland

Answer 38

- Solar energy can be defined as the light and radiant heat from the sun – can be referred to as electricity generated from solar radiation - Over $30 billion was invested in solar energy in 2007 – growth of 100 billion - This is location dependant, suitable for deserts - However, still makes up an extremely small proportion of the world’s electrical capacity – less than 1% - It is expensive but a long-term option

Answer 39

- In California, the Pacific Gas and Electric Company recently signed the world’s largest solar deal to date, with Bright Source Energy, to produce three new solar-thermal electric plants with a combined capacity of 500 MW. - First plant opened in 2011 - The $2 to $3 billion-dollar deal provides options for additional plants (up to 900 MW total), which would be enough to power 375,000 Californian homes. - The plants will be built in the Mojave Desert. Installed capacity of solar energy in the Mojave Desert already totals 364 MW, in the form of a system of nine power plants. - Located on three sites the plants vary in size from 14 to 80 MW. - Meets demand of half a million

Answer 40

- Biomass has recently come into prominence with commercial use of a number of relatively new biofuels - Biofuels is a fuel derived immediately from living matter, such as agricultural crops, forestry or fishery products - Primary biofuels include fuelwood, wood chips etc. - Secondary biofuels are derived from the processing of biomass and include liquid biofuels such as ethanol and biodiesel - Although the direct emissions caused by the use of biofuels are up to 90 per cent lower than those of gasoline or diesel fuels, the indirect emissions associated with production and land clearing for sugarcane cropping vary greatly and can be significant. - For example, nitrogen fertiliser used in growing sugarcane accounts for up to 40 per cent of greenhouse gas emissions associated with ethanol production. By devoting attention to limiting such indirect emissions, the net benefits of shifting to biofuel could be significantly improved.

Answer 41

- It is widely accepted that coal will never cease to be part of the global energy budget - it is an attractive energy source as it is abundant and cheap - CCS involves capturing the carbon dioxide released by burning fossil fuels and burying it deep underground - However, it is expensive because of the complex technology involved - No one can be sure the carbon dioxide will stay trapped underground and that it was not gradually leak to the surface - In Abu Dhabi, The CO2, a by-product of the iron making process, is transported via a 50 km pipeline to Abu Dhabi National Oil Company oil reserves for EOR. The total carbon capture capacity of the facility is 800,000 tonnes per year. - Alberta has committed $170 million in 2013/2014 – and a total of $1.3 billion over 15 years – to fund two large-scale CCS projects that will help reduce CO2 emissions from tar sands refining.

Answer 42

- Energy TNCs - Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) - Governments - State-Owned companies - Environmentalists

Answer 43

- Energy TNCs hold much control over the global supply of energy - This is because they are the main extractors and producers of fuel, and can therefore control the price of fuel globally

Answer 44

- Energy TNCs hold much control over the global supply of energy - This is because they are the main extractors and producers of fuel, and can therefore control the price of fuel globally

Answer 45

- In 2014, planned new exploration into the Alaskan sea - Shell extracts natural gas, the cleanest of the fossil fuels, in Malaysia - They try and avoid tax to reduce costs by moving one of their drill ships into Artic Waters - Shell is responsible for the damage to the environment in the Niger delta following an oil spill of 14,000 tonnes, threatening 150 species of fish

Answer 46

- OPEC is an intergovernmental organisation formed between Algeria, Angola, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Venezuela. - The stated objective is to coordinate and unify the petroleum policies of member countries and ensure the stabilisation of oil markets. - OPEC’s decisions have had a substantial influence on oil prices over the years. e.g. 1973 Oil Embargo

Answer 47

- OPEC declared an oil embargo in response to the US’s and Western Europe’s support of Israel in the Yom Kippur war of 1973 - Oil prices rose from $US3 per barrel to $US12 per barrel - Gas rationing affected countries and prices continued to rise even after the embargo was lifted - Inflation spiked, and unemployment rose - In response to high prices, industrial nations moved to reduce their dependence on oil, favouring coal, natural gas and nuclear power.

Answer 48

- Governments have a large amount of control over the energy mix of a nation, as well as the renewable energy policy Different governments have different approaches to these policies:  The UK: the national energy mix is dominated by coal and gas, however renewables are increasing  Germany: nuclear energy production has decreased due to a change in policy in 1990. By 2025, 40-45% of electricity will be renewable  China: energy mix dominated by coal. 16 new HEP dams were approved in 2006 + Three Gorges Dam – largest in the world

Answer 49

- A number of state-owned companies have been formed by recourse nationalisation, which eliminates private business operations - It also confiscates smaller scale oil production operations and private property, generally for the purpose of obtaining more revenue from oil for a government

Answer 50

- Gazprom is a Russian state-owned company - Owns the largest gas transmission network, the Unified Gas Supply System of Russia - Exploits gas reserves at the Yamal Peninsula, Arctic shelf, and the Far East - Gazprom exports gas to over 30 countries

Answer 51

- Environmentalists have a smaller role in energy supply - They look to reduce carbon emissions, stop exploitation and further exploration for fossil fuels and develop renewable recourses as a ‘greener’ energy supply - Although there would be many challenges, the WWF claims that by 2050 we could get all the energy we need from renewable recourses - There have been many campaigns from environmentalists to raise awareness for control of energy supply  1974: the EPA was accused of being responsible for the USA’s energy crisis by holding the USA back from making hasty decisions that might damage the environment  2014: Russia has been working with and finding environmentalists that oppose fracking. Russia is sensitive to the new gas supply as completion as they are the main suppliers of gas to Europe

Answer 52

- Economic growth and demand - Peak Oil - How far the life of fossil fuels can be extended

Answer 53

- There is uncertainty over global energy supply in terms of both reserves and energy demand. - Demand is strongly affected by economic growth rates - The price of oil per barrel was $US 147 in the summer of 2008 – but dropped to $40 by December as the economic recession caused a significant decline in the demand for energy

Answer 54

- Peak oil production is the year at which the world reaches its highest level of production, with production declining thereafter - No one really knows when peak oil will be reached – the USGS predicts it to be 50 years away - Strong determined by the development of new technology to extract deep oil and unconventional oil

Answer 55

- Coal gasification, clean coal technology and use of unconventional natural gas recourses - Coal gasification converts solid coal into gas that can be used for power generation– expensive - Clean coal technologies are improvements to power plant processes that both increase efficiency and reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases - Unconventional natural gas is more difficult to access and, therefore, more expensive to extract - includes deep gas, tight gas, gas-containing shells etc.

Answer 56

- December 2007, 22000 barrels of oil spilled into the sea when oil was being loaded onto a tanker off the Norwegian coast

Answer 57

- Gas is always produced along with oil - Some of this gas has to be disposed of - The CO2 emissions from gas flaring across all offshore oil production were about 5.5 million tonnes in 2000

Answer 58

The park, about 50 miles from the capital Nairobi, sits over the East African Rift, a huge fracture in the earth’s crust that also cuts through Tanzania, Uganda, Ethiopia and other countries. Steam from here helped generate 47 per cent of Kenya’s electricity in 2015, with hydropower (nearly 35 per cent) generating much of the rest. That explosive growth has made geothermal power a promising source of renewable energy for a country of 44 million people that is expected to nearly double in population by 2050.

Answer 59

By 2020, the EU aims to have 10% of the transport fuel of every EU country come from renewable sources such as biofuels.

Answer 60

China is the world leader in wind power generation, with the largest installed capacity of any nation[1] and continued rapid growth in new wind facilities.[2] With its large land mass and long coastline, China has exceptional wind power resources: The largest domestic wind turbine manufacturer in China is Goldwind from Xinjiang province. Established in 1998, Goldwind aggressively developed new technology and expanded its market share, though this then decreased from 35% in 2006 to 19% in 2012.