carbon

Question 1

why is carbon important

Answer 1

Carbon is the main building block of life. ​

Question 2

how is carbon held

Answer 2

Carbon is held in stores e.g. the atmosphere and can have many forms. For example in the atmosphere, carbon is present as gases (carbon dioxide and methane).​

Question 3

carbon stores

Answer 3

the atmosphere
the hydrosphere
the lithosphere
the biosphere

Question 4

what carbon is stored in the atmosphere

Answer 4

carbon dioxide and methane

Question 5

what carbon is stored in the hydrosphere

Answer 5

dissolved carbon

Question 6

what carbon is stored in the lithosphere

Answer 6

carbonates in limestone and fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas

Question 7

what carbon is stored in the biosphere

Answer 7

in both living and dead organisms

Question 8

what is the cycle of carbon

Answer 8

how carbon moves from one store to another

Question 9

what processes are involved in the carbon cycle

Answer 9

respiration
photosynthesis
volcanic eruptions

Question 10

store/reservoir

Answer 10

where carbon is held

Question 11

fluxes

Answer 11

the flows of movement between the stores, which can operate at local and global scales

Question 12

petagrams or gigatonnes

Answer 12

The units used to measure carbon; one petagram (Pg), also known as a gigatonne (Gt), is equal to one billion tonnes.​

Question 13

egs of carbon stores

Answer 13

crustal/terrestrial/geological
oceanic (deep)
terrestrial soil
oceanic (surface)
atmospheric
terrestrial ecosystems

Question 14

crustal/terrestrial/geological
carbon store

Answer 14

Sedimentary rocks, very slow cycling over millennia ​

Question 15

oceanic (deep)
carbon store

Answer 15

Most carbon is dissolved, inorganic carbon stored at great depths, very slowly cycled.​

Question 16

terrestrial soil
carbon store

Answer 16

From plant materials (biomass) microorganisms break most organic matter down into C02 in a process which can take days in a hot and humid climate to decades in colder climates​

Question 17

oceanic (surface)
carbon store

Answer 17

Exchanges are rapid with the atmosphere through physical processes such as C02 dissolving in the water and biological processes involving plankton. Some of this carbon sinks into the deeper ocean pool. ​

Question 18

atmospheric
carbon store

Answer 18

C02 and CH4 store carbon as greenhouse gases with a lifetime up to 100 years​

Question 19

terrestrial ecosystems
carbon store

Answer 19

CO2 is taken from the atmosphere by photosynthesis, carbon is stored organically, especially in trees. Rapid exchange with the atmosphere- seconds/minutes.

Question 20

crustal/terrestrial/geological pentagrams

Answer 20

100 000 000 fossil fuels store an extra 4 000

Question 21

oceanic (deep) pentagrams

Answer 21

38 000

Question 22

terrestrial soil pentagrams

Answer 22

1,500

Question 23

oceanic (surface) pentagrams

Answer 23

1,000

Question 24

atmospheric pentagrams

Answer 24

560

Question 25

terrestrial ecosystems pentagrams

Answer 25

560

Question 26

long term carbon stores

Answer 26

crustal/terrestrial/geological
oceanic (deep)

Question 27

short term stores

Answer 27

terrestrial soil
oceanic (surface)
atmospheric
terrestrial ecosystems

Question 28

where can carbon come from

Answer 28

geological carbon
biologicaly derived carbon

Question 29

geological carbon

Answer 29

Carbon can be created through a number of chemical reactions in the rock cycle

Question 30

biologically derived carbon

Answer 30

Carbon can also be present in organic matter as a result of processes such as respiration. This can later be stored in shale, coal and other sedimentary rocks

Question 31

when is geological carbon formed

Answer 31

when rocks such as sedimentary rocks are created e.g. limestone and chalk. ​

Question 32

why is there balance in the geologicaal carbon cycle

Answer 32

There tends to be a natural balance between the amount of carbon being released and the amount being absorbed. ​
However, there can be occasional disruptions and short periods before this balance is restored, such as during a volcanic eruption.​

Question 33

what happens in the geological carbon cycle

Answer 33

This is a natural cycle that moves between land, oceans and the atmosphere.​
It involves a number of chemical reactions that create new stores which trap carbon for significant periods of time

Question 34

case study example of a geological carbon cycle

Answer 34

One of earth’s largest stores of carbon is the Himalayas which started off as oceanic sediments rich in calcium- this is now being weathered and returned back to the oceans. ​

Question 35

what is biologically derived carbon created from

Answer 35

is created from dead organisms such as coal and shale. ​
These organisms absorb carbon during respiration and photosynthesis.​
Once they die they (if they are in oceans) sink to the sea bed.​
They are then buried under sinking sediments and form layers called strata.​
Eventually, the strata are squeezed together as a result of the weight on top, and can create fossil fuels such as coal and oil.​

Question 36

what is out gassing

Answer 36

Terrestrial carbon, held within the mantle, is released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide (CO2) when volcanoes erupt

Question 37

what is chemical weathering

Answer 37

CO2 within the atmosphere combines with rainfall to produce a weak acid (acid rain) that dissolves carbon-rich rocks, releasing bicarbonates

Question 38

what happens to weathered carbon calcium sediments in the geoleogical carbon cycle

Answer 38

Rivers transport weathered carbon and calcium sediments to oceans, where they are deposited.​
Carbon in organic matter from plants and from animal shells and skeletons sinks to the ocean bed when they die, building up strata of coal, chalk and limestone. ​

Carbon-rich rocks are subducted along plate boundaries and eventually emerge again when volcanoes erupt.​

The presence of intense heating along subduction plate boundaries metamorphoses (alters) sedimentary rocks by baking, creating metamorphic rock. CO2 is released by the metamorphism of rocks rich in carbonates during this process.​

Question 39

what are the three ways carbon is released in the geological carbon cycle

Answer 39

volcanic outgassing
metamorphism
chemical weathering

Question 40

eg of outgassing

Answer 40

in 2010, the Icelandic Eruption emitted between 150,000 and 300,000 tonnes of CO2 per day. It contributed less than 0.3% of global emissions that year.​

Question 41

in what form is carbon found in the atmosphere

Answer 41

a gas

Question 42

Carbon is stored during the formation of which type of rock?

Answer 42

sedimentary

Question 43

What is the term used for the movements of carbon between stores?​

Answer 43

flux

Question 44

How many tonnes is a petagram/gigatonne equal to?​

​

Answer 44

One billion​

Question 45

What is the name of the sphere where all living things are found?​

Answer 45

biosphere

Question 46

what is the difference between a carbon source and carbon sink

Answer 46

A carbon source is shrinking in size and releasing emissions. Whereas a carbon sink is growing in size and storing more carbon.​

​

Question 47

what does the amount of carbon in the atmosphere depend on

Answer 47

the balance that exists between the sinks and sources.​

​

Question 48

when is the carbon cycle in equilibrium/balanced

Answer 48

If sources equal sinks

Question 49

what happens if the carbon cycle is unbalanced

Answer 49

results in posotive or negative feedback

Question 50

negative feedback loop

Answer 50

Earth systems normally operate by negative (stabilising) feedbacks, maintaining a stable state by preventing the system moving beyond certain thresholds. I.e. any change is cancelled out, maintaining equilibrium. ​

Question 51

posotive feedback

Answer 51

Positive (amplifying) feedback loops occur when a small change in one component causes changes in other components. This shifts the system away from its previous state and towards a new one.​

Question 52

what is the biogeochemical carbon cycle

Answer 52

Biological and chemical processes determine just how much of the carbon available on the Earth’s surface is stored or released at any one time. ​
The role of living organisms are critical to the cycle and to controlling the balance between overall storage, release, transfer and absorption of carbon. ​

Question 53

what 4 key processes are involved in the bio-geochemical carbon cycle

Answer 53

photosynthesis
respiration
decomposition
combustion

Question 54

what is respiration

Answer 54

a chemical process that happens in all cells and is common to both plants and animals
glucose is converted into energy that can be used for growth and repair, movement and control of body temperature in mammals
carbon dioxide is then returned to the atmosphere mostly by exhaled air

Question 55

what is decomposition

Answer 55

when organisms die they are consumed by decomposers such as bacteria, fungi and earthworms
during this carbon from their bodies is returned to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide
some organic material passes into the soil where it may be stored for hundreds of years

Question 56

what is combustion

Answer 56

organic material contains carbon
when burned in the presence of oxygen it is converted into energy, carbon dioxide and water- combustion
carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere returning carbon that may have been stored in rock for millions of years

Question 57

what is photosynthesis

Answer 57

the process where plants use the light energy from the sun to produce carbohydrates in the form of glucose
green plants absorb light energy using chloropyll in their leaves
absorbed light energy converts carbon dioxide in the air and water from the soil into glucose- during this oxygen is released into the air
some glucose is used in respiration the rest is converted into starch which is insolublebut can be converted back into glucose for respiration

Question 58

how much larger is the ocean store for carbon than the atmosphere

Answer 58

The ocean’s are one of the Earth’s largest store, being 50 times greater than the atmosphere. ​

Question 59

where is 93% of CO2 stored

Answer 59

in undersea algae, plants and coral, with the remainder dissolved in the water. ​

Question 60

what are carbon cycle pumps

Answer 60

are processes operating within the oceans which circulate and store carbon. ​

Question 61

what are the three carbon cycle pumps

Answer 61

the biological pump, the carbonate pump and the physical pump.​

Question 62

what are the three ocean pumps

Answer 62

biological pump
carbonate pump
physical pump

Question 63

biological pump

Answer 63

this is the sequestration of C02 to oceans by phytoplankton. Phytoplankton float on the surface of the ocean to access sunlight and photosynthesise. They are autotrophs and are the base of the marine food web. Even though they are minute they make up over half the planets biomass. ​
Carbon is then passed up the food chain by consumers which in turn release C02 back to the atmosphere.​
In this way most carbon is cycled in surface waters and only 0.1% reaches the sea floor through decompositions and sedimentation. ​
Phytoplankton sequester over 2 billion metric tonnes of C02 annually to the deep ocean. ​

Question 64

carbonate pump

Answer 64

this relies on inorganic carbon sedimentation. Lots of marine organisms utilise calcium carbonate to make their outer shells/ skeletons. When these organisms die and sink to the sea floor many shells will dissolve on the way and the carbon will become part of the ocean and flow around the planet in currents. Shells that do not dissolve build up slowly on the sea floor forming limestone sediments such as those in the white cliffs of Dover. ​

Question 65

physical pump

Answer 65

This is the oceanic circulation of water including upwelling, down welling and the thermohaline current. C02 in the oceans is mixed much slower than in the atmosphere so there are large spatial differences in concentration. ​
Colder water can absorb more C02 so C02 concentration is 10% higher in the deep ocean than the surface and polar regions store more than tropical regions. ​Warm waters release C02 into the atmosphere and cold waters absorb C02. ​
Large ocean currents like the North Atlantic Drift move water from the tropics to the poles, the water cools and absorbs more C02. ​

Question 66

when did the iceland volcano erupt

Answer 66

2010

Question 67

how much CO2 did the iceland volcano emmit

Answer 67

between 150,000 and 300,000 tonnes of CO2 per day placing it in the same emissions league as small-medium European countries such as Portugal or Ireland

Question 68

what % of global emmisions of greenhouse gases did the Iceland volcano emit in 2010

Answer 68

However it contributed less than 0.3% of global emissions of greenhouse gases in 2010.​

Question 69

biological pump summed up

Answer 69

organic sequestration by phytoplankton

Question 70

physical pump summed up

Answer 70

based on the rise (upwelling) and fall (downwelling) of the circulation of water

Question 71

carbonate pump summed up

Answer 71

Based on CaCO3 used in the shells of marine organisms​

Question 72

where do phytoplankton live

Answer 72

Phytoplankton float on the ocean’s surface to access sunlight and photosynthesise.​

Question 73

how much of the worlds biomass do phytoplankton make up

Answer 73

half

Question 74

what do phytoplankton absorb

Answer 74

The absorb carbon, when eaten that carbon is passed along the food chain.​
Part of that carbon is released through respiration.​
Some carbon reaches the sea floor through decomposition and sedimentation.​
Threatened by warming oceans.​

Question 75

variations in phytoplankton

Answer 75

Thrive along coastlines and continental shelves.​
Found along the equator in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.​
Thrive in high latitude areas.​

Question 76

why do phytoplankton thrive in certain areas

Answer 76

Oceans rich in nutrients from deep water upwelling.​
In high latitudes blooms peak in spring and summer when sunlight increases.​
In subtropical oceans blooms decrease because surface waters warm up and become buoyant, with cold, dense water below the water not mixing easily, meaning nutrients are quickly used up.​

Question 77

what is the fastest part of the carbon cycle

Answer 77

terrestrial (land based) sequestration

Question 78

globally what are the most productive biomes

Answer 78

tropical forests and savanah grasslands

Question 79

what happens in terrestrial sequestration

Answer 79

Primary producers (plants) take in carbon through photosynthesis and then release CO2 back into the atmosphere through respiration.​
Consumer animals then eat these plants and absorb the carbon which becomes part of its fats and proteins.​
Initially after the animal has died, microorganisms and detritus feeders such as beetles feed on waste material which becomes part of these micro-organisms.​
After death, tissues decay into the soils. This process is affected by climate and decomposition will happen fastest in tropical climates (warm and damp) or, in Arctic biomes, the process can be ‘locked down’ for substantial time periods. ​

Question 80

what is 95% of a trees biomass made up of

Answer 80

95% of a tree’s biomass (leaves, branches, trunk and roots) is made up from thee CO2 that it sequesters and converts into cellulose.​

Question 81

what does carbon fixation do

Answer 81

turns gaseous carbon into living organic compounds that grow.​

Question 82

what % of global carbon do soils store

Answer 82

20-30%
sequestering about twice the quantity of carbon as the atmosphere and three times that of terrestrial vegetation. Whether the soil sequesters or emits C02 depends on local conditions.​

Question 83

what factors affect carbon sequestration in soils

Answer 83

climate
soil type
management and use of soils

Question 84

how does climate affect carbon sequestration in soils

Answer 84

This dictates plant growth and microbe activity. Rapid decomposition occurs at higher temperatures or under water logged conditions. Places with high rainfall have an increased potential carbon storage than the same soil type in lower rainfall places. Arid soils store only 30 tonnes per hectare compared with 800 tonnes per hectare in cold regions.​

Question 85

how does soil type affect carbon sequestration in soils

Answer 85

Clay-rich soils have a higher carbon content than sandy soils as clay protects carbon from decomposition. ​

Question 86

how does management and use of soils affect carbon sequestration in soils

Answer 86

Since 1850, soils globally have lost 40-90 billion gigatons of carbon through cultivation and disturbance. Current rates of carbon loss due to land-use change are 1.6 ± 0.8 billion gigatons of carbon per year.

Question 87

what happens to 31% of short wave radiation

Answer 87

reflected by clouds, aerosols and gases in the atmosphere and by the land surface.​

Question 88

what happens to the other 69% of short wave radiation

Answer 88

absorbed, particularly by the oceans.

Question 89

what happens when long wave radiation is reflected back

Answer 89

a large amount is re-radiated back to Earth by clouds and GHGs which traps the long wave radiation in our atmosphere. ​

Question 90

what does the natural greenhouse effect do

Answer 90

gives us our life supporting average temperature of 15 degrees. Without this effect our average temperature would be -6.

Question 91

holocene period

Answer 91

The present geological time we are living in is called the Holocene period but many people refer to it now as the Anthropocene because of the profound changes caused by humans. ​

Question 92

how has the enhanced greenhouse effect affected c02 levels

Answer 92

The natural greenhouse effect has become enhanced; C02 in the atmosphere has increased in volume by 40% in the last 300 years. ​

Question 93

causes of green house gases

Answer 93

industry
agriculture
electricity generation
transport
cement production
wetland/peatland loss

Question 94

how does industry create greenhouse gases

Answer 94

combustion of fossil fuels

Question 95

how does transport create greenhouse gases

Answer 95

c02 emmisions

Question 96

how does agriculture create greenhouse gases

Answer 96

livestock-methane
deforestation- farm land
loss of soil carbon from ploughing

Question 97

how does elecrticity generation create GHGs

Answer 97

increased demand due to rising population

Question 98

how does cement production create GHGs

Answer 98

The most consumed product in the world after water.​
Chemical processes involved in production release a substantial amount of carbon dioxide (6% of global carbon emissions). ​

Question 99

how does wetland/peatland loss cause GHGs

Answer 99

The nature of wetlands is shaped by water and rainfall patterns – the unpredictable change due to climate change may result in wetlands drying out.​
Peatlands store 550Gt of carbon – twice as much as all of the world’s forest biomass combined but only cover 3% of the earth’s surface. ​

​

Question 100

how has human activity affected carbon distribution

Answer 100

Through burning fossil fuels we have transferred considerable amounts of carbon from fossil stores, where exchanges are very slow, into the fast category, significantly disturbing the carbon cycle.​
CO2 levels in the atmosphere are higher than ever before.​
This process has continued since the Industrial Revolution (1760-1840) and accelerated through the oil age (20th century), changing the chemistry of the atmosphere. ​

Question 101

how have climate patterns- temperature and precipitation distribution affected carbon levels

Answer 101

Carbon dioxide and other GHGs naturally help to maintain the Earth’s temperature – and also determines the distribution of temperature and precipitation.​
If the concentrations of these change, it is likely to alter these distribution patterns. ​

Question 102

how is temperature distributed

Answer 102

The amount of solar energy (solar insolation) reaching the Earth’s surface varies at different locations which in turn influences temperature.​
The angle of the sun’s rays makes solar insolation intense at the equator but dispersed over a wider area at the poles. ​
Different characteristics of the Earth’s surface (how light or dark it is) also affects how much heat is absorbed or reflected. ​

Question 103

how is precipitation distributed

Answer 103

The heating of the atmosphere and surface controls the temperature, pressure, movement and moisture content of the air.
Because solar radiation is most intense at the equator, low pressure systems dominate there, meaning rainfall all year round.​
Regional and seasonal variations also ​occur, because of the effects of relief, pressure patterns and wind systems.​

Question 104

what happens in the enhanced greenhouse effect

Answer 104

1) short wave radiation passes through the atmosphere
2) some long wave radiation is reflected back into space
3) some short wave radiation is absorbed and is converted to long wave (heat) radiation

Question 105

evidence of climate change

Answer 105

The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change) has been collecting evidence of natural changes of heat sources such as volcanism, solar changes and orbital changes such as the Milankovitch cycle and none of these can account for recent changes. ​

Question 106

how do we know that c02 levels in the atmosphere are higher than ever before

Answer 106

compared with air bubbles found in ice cores up to 800,000 years ago

Question 107

what is the primary energy source driving modern civilisation

Answer 107

fossil fuels

Question 108

what does fossil fuel combustion create

Answer 108

fast carbon cycling
Without it, the carbon in the fossil fuels would transfer slowly through volcanic activity.​

Question 109

between 1750 and 2011 how much did the IPCC estimate concentratio of c02 in the atmosphere would increase by

Answer 109

40%
With approximately 50% of those emissions still in our atmosphere today. ​

Question 110

how long does carbon remain in the atmosphere for

Answer 110

2000 years
so c;limate change will continue

Question 111

what is the combustion of fossil fuels linked to

Answer 111

linked greenhouse gas concentrations, rising global temperatures and sea levels.​

Question 112

what are the three main areas fossil fuel combustion impacts on

Answer 112

climate
ecosystems
hydrological cycle

Question 113

what was the hottest year on record

Answer 113

2015
average world temperature 1 degrees C above that of pre-industrial era; 2011 -2015 were the five hottest years on record.​

Question 114

how does climate change affect marine biodiversity

Answer 114

Marine biodiversity may be lost as fish move away from warming sea temperatures and about 80% of coral reefs could be bleached (e.g. Great Barrier Reef). ​

Question 115

how does climate change affect permafrost

Answer 115

Permafrost areas will thaw and add more water to Arctic rivers. ​

Question 116

how does climate change affect drought

Answer 116

The Sahel, Mediterranean, South Africa and South Asia will become drier, with drought more common in the tropics and subtropics – but some uncertainties remain due to other factors (El Nino).​

Question 117

how does fossil fuels impact oceanic circulation

Answer 117

Atlantic and Southern Ocean thermohaline circulation may weaken, altering the transfer of heat by oceans.​

Question 118

how does fossil fuels and climate change impact flash flooding

Answer 118

Uncertainty remains over increased river flooding, since multiple factors are involved, but more flash flooding is likely as a result of more intense precipitation.​

Question 119

by what year are shifting temperatures going to impact bird habitats

Answer 119

By 2080 shifting temperatures may reduce bird habitats in North America, affecting 314 species, with ocean and coastal habitats affected the most, also partly because of coastal flooding and salt encroachment).​

Question 120

habitat changes will mean that what % of land species with limited adaptability will face extinction

Answer 120

10%
as climate gets warmer and wetter or drier
Rates of extinction could rise to 15-40% of all species, especially in high polar regions.​

Question 121

what will a shift of subtropical high pressure areas northwards cause

Answer 121

cause a 20-30% decrease in water availability in Mediterranean climate zones.​

Question 122

how will fossil fuels and climate change affect ice shelves

Answer 122

Antarctic ice shelves will melt, adding more freshwater to the Southern Ocean, changing density and convection.​

Question 123

how has fossil fuels and climate change impacted average arctic temperatures

Answer 123

average Arctic temperature has already increased at twice the global average over the last 200 years. Snow and ice cover will contract with the ablation of glaciers.​

Question 124

how does climate change affect humidity levels

Answer 124

Humidity levels in the atmosphere will increase, consistent with what warmer air can hold.​

Question 125

how will fossil fuels and climate change impact precipitation

Answer 125

Precipitation will increase in higher latitudes and decrease in lower latitudes. Worldwide patterns will change, with wetter eastern parts of N/S America, northern Europe and northern/central Asia.​
Extreme heavy precipitation events will become common, with precipitation increases over northern-hemisphere land areas.​

Question 126

how will climate change affect cold and warm days

Answer 126

The number of cold days and nights will decrease, and warm ones will increase. There have been fewer extreme cold events over the last 50 years, but more extreme heat events.​

Question 127

how will climate change affect biodiversity

Answer 127

Biodiversity will be affected as habitats shift poleward or into deeper ocean waters or higher altitudes. In north Brazil and central-southern Africa, lower rainfall and soil moisture, which causes changes to soil and oxygen will reduce biodiversity. Permafrost will thaw.​
Acidification of sea water (carbonic acid) will threaten corals and the shells of marine creatures will get smaller and thinner.​
Butterflies are a good example of the shift northwards of climate zones (6.1 km per decade). ​

Question 128

climate negative outcomes to stores and pathways of carbon

Answer 128

Atlantic and Southern Ocean thermohaline circulation may weaken, altering the transfer of heat by oceans.​

Antarctic ice shelves will melt, adding more freshwater to the Southern Ocean, changing density and convection.​

Extratropical low-pressure system (depression) tracks will move northwards with climate pattern shift.​

Temperate and tropical zones may experience stronger storm activity because of more heat and moisture in the atmosphere.​

Question 129

ecosystems negative outcomes to stores and pathways of carbon

Answer 129

Biodiversity will be affected as habitats shift poleward or into deeper ocean waters or higher altitudes. In north Brazil and central-southern Africa, lower rainfall and soil moisture, which causes changes to soil and oxygen will reduce biodiversity. Permafrost will thaw.​

By 2080 shifting temperatures may reduce bird habitats in North America, affecting 314 species, with ocean and coastal habitats affected the most, also partly because of coastal flooding and salt encroachment).​

Question 130

hydrological cycle negative outcomes to stores and pathways of carbon

Answer 130

A shift of subtropical high-pressure areas northwards will cause a 20-30% decrease in water availability in Mediterranean climate zones.​

Small glaciers will disappear (e.g. in the Andes and Himalayas), decreasing river discharges once they have gone. ​

​

Question 131

what is an energy mix

Answer 131

The energy mix of a country is the proportion of each primary energy resource it uses per year. These resources may be domestic or imported. ​

Question 132

non renewable (finite) energy mix

Answer 132

E.g. coal, oil and gas. Exploitation and use of these stocks will lead to their exhaustion. ​

Question 133

renewable energy mix

Answer 133

E.g. solar, wind and wave power.​
These are continuous flows of nature and can be constantly re-used.​

Question 134

recyclable energy mix

Answer 134

E.g. reprocessed uranium and plutonium from nuclear power plants and heat recovery systems​

Question 135

what factors affect energy mixes

Answer 135

Availability of primary energy resources within the country as well as their access to technology to extract the resources.​
The accessibility of primary energy resources from outside the country.​
The energy needs of the country, based on economic development, lifestyle and climate.​
changing energy consumption patterns, linked to population and economic growth.​
National and regional policies that affect energy production and consumption e.g. climate change.​
Cultural and historical legacies and geopolitical links.​
Financial costs of each energy option.​

Question 135

eg of how The energy needs of the country, based on economic development, lifestyle and climate affect the energy mix

Answer 135

US – consumerist lifestyle meaning higher demand. Plus hot/cold climate meaning air conditioning and heating required​

Question 136

eg of how The accessibility of primary energy resources from outside the country affects the energy mix

Answer 136

Europe – Russia exports 80% of it’s natural gas to Europe.​

Question 137

eg of how Availability of primary energy resources within the country as well as their access to technology to extract the resources affects the energy mix

Answer 137

Iceland – Domestic geothermal energy​

Question 138

eg of how National and regional policies that affect energy production and consumption e.g. climate change can affect the energy mix

Answer 138

UK – National policies to reduce emissions and invest in renewables​

Question 139

eg of how Financial costs of each energy option affect the energy mix

Answer 139

Countries with little capital e.g. India, consume the cheapest resources, which is currently fossil fuels

Question 140

eg of how hanging energy consumption patterns, linked to population and economic growth can affect the energy mix

Answer 140

India – population of 1.2 billion meaning high demand​

Question 141

eg of how Cultural and historical legacies and geopolitical links can affect the energy mix

Answer 141

India – struck a deal with Canada for it to provide India with 3.2 million kilos of uranium.​

Question 142

what are the two types of energy

Answer 142

primary
secondary

Question 143

primary energy

Answer 143

natural energy resources that have not been converted into another form of energy e.g. coal, oil, gas. (Consumed in their raw form)​

Question 144

secondary energy

Answer 144

refers to what the primary source has been converted into, usually electricity. ​

Question 145

what % of the UKs energy mix does coal and oil make up

Answer 145

less than 1% combined

Question 146

what % of the UKs energy mix does natural gas make up

Answer 146

38%

Question 147

what % of the UKs energy mix does wind make up

Answer 147

20%

Question 148

what % of the UKs energy mix does biomass make up

Answer 148

12%

Question 149

what % of the UKs energy mix does solar make up

Answer 149

6%

Question 150

what % of the UKs energy mix does nuclear make up

Answer 150

19%

Question 151

why is the UK in an energy deficit and energy insecure

Answer 151

Despite economic and population growth in the UK, the adoption of energy-saving technologies (e.g. home heating and vehicle engines) resulted in the UK consuming less energy in 2015 than in 1998 with more of that energy coming from renewables. ​
However, the UK now imports more energy than it produces domestically (i.e. from it’s own reserves) due to a decline in the North Sea oil and gas reserves. ​

Question 152

what is energy security

Answer 152

being able to access reliable and affordable energy sources – either domestic or from ‘friendly’, overseas countries​

Question 153

europe is dependent on russian gas for what % of its supply

Answer 153

40%
Countries such as Germany are particularly vulnerable (50% - shut down other resources)

Question 154

what eastern european countries rely solely on russian gas

Answer 154

Moldova and North Macedonia for example. Finland and Latvia rely on it for over 90% of their energy.​

Question 155

what % of the Uks gas supply comes from domestic resources

Answer 155

50%
the other half mostly from Norway.​

Question 156

what % of gas supply did Russian imports make up for the UK in 2021

Answer 156

There are no gas pipelines directly linking the UK with Russia and imports from Russia made up less than 4% of total UK gas supply in 2021.​

Question 157

why does Europe want to wean istelf off russian gas

Answer 157

the aim of Europe to wean itself off Russian gas to make it less of a weapon during conflict.​

Question 158

what does russias economy heavily rely on

Answer 158

fossil fuel exports, so it needs to consider the consequences of this, if it decides to threaten the removal of the supply to Europe.​

Question 159

energy mix

Answer 159

The energy mix of a country is the proportion of each primary energy resource it uses per year. ​

Question 160

recyclable energy

Answer 160

A resource that is reused or reprocessed​

Question 161

primary energy

Answer 161

natural energy resources that have not been converted into another form of energy/consumed in raw form​

Question 162

domestic energy

Answer 162

Energy extracted and used within the same country​

Question 163

what are the three types of resources that make up an energy mix

Answer 163

non renewable
renewable
recyclable

Question 164

what does meeting the demand for energy involve

Answer 164

energy pathways from producer to consumer

Question 165

energy pathway

Answer 165

describes the flow of energy between the producer and consumer, and how it reaches the consumer, e.g. pipeline, transmission lines, ship, rail etc. ​

Question 166

what three objectives does the world energy council suggest energy players have

Answer 166

energy security-energy supply must meet demands​
energy equity- there must be accessible and affordable energy for all countries ​
environmental sustainability

Question 167

how has energy security been threatened during the recent ‘oil age’

Answer 167

geopolitical tension e.g. Arab uprising in North Africa, Arab-Israeli war. ​

Question 168

what are the 5 major players in world energy

Answer 168

OPEC
energy companies
TNCs
consumers
governments

Question 169

what does OPEC stand for

Answer 169

Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries.

Question 170

how many countries is OPEC made up of

Answer 170

12 member countries and between them they own around two-thirds of the world’s oil reserves.​

Question 171

what does OPEC do

Answer 171

is in a position to control the amount of oil and gas entering the global market, as well as the prices of both commodities.​
It has been accused of holding back production in order to drive up oil prices.​

Question 172

energy companies

Answer 172

These are the companies that convert primary energy (oil, gas and oil) into electricity and then distribute it.​
Most companies are involved in the distribution of both gas and electricity.​
They have considerable influence when it comes to setting consumer prices and tariffs. ​

Question 173

TNCs that are major players in world energy

Answer 173

Gazprom, BP and Total.​

Question 174

TNCs as major players in world energy

Answer 174

Nearly half of the top 20 oil companies are state-owned, so therefore very much under government control.​
Most of these companies are involved in a range of operations, such as exploring, extracting, transporting, refining and producing petrochemicals. ​

Question 175

consumers as major players in world energy

Answer 175

They create the demand.​
The most influential consumers are transport, industry and domestic users. ​
Purchasing choices are often based on price/cost issues e.g. petrol prices can be keenly competitive between supermarkets​
Consumers are largely passive players when it comes to fixing energy prices.​

Question 176

role of governments as major players in world energy

Answer 176

They can influence the sourcing of energy for geopolitical reasons.​
To meet international obligations, whilst securing energy supplies for the nation’s present and future, as well as supporting the countries economic growth.​
Regulating the role of private companies and setting environmental priorities. ​

Question 177

what has the global demand for different sources of energy increased by since the 1990s

Answer 177

50%

Question 178

what % of the global energy mix do fossil fuels make up

Answer 178

84% (in 2019)

Question 179

what effect has chinas rapid economic growth had on consumption

Answer 179

China’s rapid economic growth has largely driven in the increase of consumption, doubling it’s oil consumption between 2000-2010. This is expected to increase at twice the global average, which means that by 2035 China will be the world’s largest energy importer.​

Question 180

what is the issue with fossil fuel demand

Answer 180

The issue is the mismatch between where fossil fuels are found and where the demand for them is greatest.​

Question 181

why is the distribution of fossil fuels uneven across the world

Answer 181

Coal, oil and natural gas all from under certain geological conditions which determines where they are found. ​
Because of the disparity between production and areas of high demand, this is called a mismatch.​

Question 182

gas pathways

Answer 182

Natural gas is transported via pipelines because it’s efficient and increasingly international. ​
These pathways depend on multilateral (between many countries) and bilateral (between two countries) agreements. ​

Question 183

eg of gazprom as a gas pathway

Answer 183

The Russian firm Gazprom exports 80% of their gas to Europe. For security reasons they try to avoid transporting the gas through other countries.

Question 184

eg of a gas pathway

Answer 184

the nord stream

Question 185

how long is the nord stream 2

Answer 185

The Nord Stream pipeline runs 1200 km along the bed of the Baltic Sea to avoid other countries.
take gas from the Russian coast near St Petersburg to Lubmin in Germany.​

Question 186

how much did the nord stream 2 cost

Answer 186

€10bn (£8.4bn) and was completed last September. The Russian state-owned energy giant Gazprom put up half of the cost and western energy firms such as Shell and ENGIE of France are paying the rest.​

Question 187

what existing gas pipeline does the nord stream 2 run parallell to

Answer 187

runs parallel to an existing gas pipeline, Nord Stream, which has been working since 2011.​

Question 188

how much gas could the nord stream and nord stream 2 deliver to europe

Answer 188

these two pipelines could deliver 110bn cubic metres of gas to Europe every year. That is over a quarter of all the gas that European Union countries use annually.​

Question 189

what % of the worlds oil is moved by tankers

Answer 189

50%
travelling on fixed shipping routes, which include narrow sea channels or a convergence of transport routes (a choke point). ​

Question 190

eg of a choke point

Answer 190

the Suez Canal
It is just 205m wide but one million barrels of oil; 8% if liquified natural gas and 12% of global trade pass through every day!​

Question 191

how do choke points affect energy prices

Answer 191

If choke points are blocked or threatened, even temporarily, then energy prices can quickly rise

Question 192

why are energy pathways key to energy security

Answer 192

Due to energy transportation

Question 193

what threats are there to energy pathways

Answer 193

Geopolitical factors – concerning ownership, use and control.​
Militant action (including piracy) – e.g. seized ships, bombed pipelines.​
Weather/natural hazards – damage to pipelines in storms or earthquakes. ​
political tensions and disagreements – lead to choke points being blocked.​

Question 194

eg of how geoplotical factors are a threat to energy pathways

Answer 194

the ongoing Syrian conflict Russia and USA’s battle for control over Syria. ​

Many argue the main reason for control is the proposed pipeline through Syria to fuel Europe. ​

Russia is the second biggest supplier of oil and gas (after the US and Saudi Arabia) and wants a share in the European market - it is allies with Iran who want the same involvement in the market. Iran want to export its gas via pipelines through Syria so it defends the Syrian government from those trying to overthrow and replace their president Assad.​

Question 195

eg of how militant action is a threat to energy pathways

Answer 195

in December 2015, the International Marine Bureau reported piracy attacks along the Strait of Malacca, between Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia (the world’s second largest chokepoint for oil and gas transit by tanker). Criminal gangs frequently seized ships for hostage payments – over 500 attacks occurred between 2009-2015.​
The Trans-Forcados, Efurtun-Otor and Escravos pipelines in Nigeria were bombed in 2016 by militants resulting in a loss of 300,000 barrels of crude oil a day.​

Question 196

eg of how weather/natural hazards are a threat to energy pathways

Answer 196

During a stormy winter in 2013, UK gas reserves fell to 6 hours worth, as storm damage paralysed an import pipeline.​

Question 197

eg of how political tensions and disagreements can be a threat to energy pathways

Answer 197

3 out of 4 of Russia’s pipelines cross Ukraine to get to Europe.​
Due to conflict between Russia and Ukraine, this could threaten the energy security of Europe.​
Ukraine could increase prices it charges for allowing the gas to be transferred across its country; or it could stop the flow altogether. ​

Question 198

Suez Canal Blockage 2011

Answer 198

In March 2021 a huge container ship blocked the canal, preventing any traffic from passing through.​
A total of 450 ships were delayed, estimated to be $9.6bn of trade each day.​
Crude oil prices rose as a result due to fears supplies would be short!​

Question 199

what are unconventional fossil fuels

Answer 199

when fossil fuels are obtained using new, unconventional methods.​

Question 200

unconventional fossil fuels

Answer 200

tar sands
deep water oil
shale gas
oil shale

Question 201

tar sands

Answer 201

also known as oil sands. These are naturally occurring mixtures of sand, clay, water and a dense viscous form of petroleum called bitumen. Canada has 73% of known global stocks.​

Question 202

extraction of tar sands

Answer 202

tar sands have to be mined and then injected with steam to make the tar less viscous so that it can be pumped out.​

Question 203

oil shale

Answer 203

Deposits of organic compounds called kerogen in sedimentary rocks that have not undergone sufficient pressure, heat or time to become conventional oil. The USA has 77% of known global reserves. ​

Question 204

extraction of oil shale

Answer 204

Either mined or shale is ignited so that the light oil fractions can be pumped out.​

Question 205

shale gas

Answer 205

Usually methane in coal seams, or natural gas trapped in fractures and pores of sandstones and shales. ​

Question 206

extraction shale gas

Answer 206

Fracking: pumping water and chemicals forces out the gas​

Question 207

deepwater oil

Answer 207

As accessible reserves (e.g. North Sea oil) run out, prospecting companies have to look into deeper ocean waters with greater risks and costs, e.g. the Gulf of Mexico and Brazil’s off-shore reserves. ​

Question 208

extraction of deepwater oil

Answer 208

Drilling takes place from ocean rigs; already underway in the Gulf of Mexico and Brazil​

Question 209

what has happened to the use of conventional fossil fuels

Answer 209

has decreased, whilst unconventional fossil fuels has, and is predicted to continue to increase.​

Question 210

what was the most used fossil fuel in 1990

Answer 210

conventional oil
at 8 million barrels per day

Question 211

what is predicted to be the most used fossil fuel in 2030

Answer 211

unconventional gas
at 10 million barrels per day

Question 212

what is ‘peak oil’

Answer 212

when oil production will reach a global peak, before declining sharply.​
has been predicted for many years

Question 213

why is the use of unconventional fossil fuels increasing

Answer 213

As conventional fossil fuels (oil, gas and coal) reach an end, the search for other sources has intensified. ​
Unconventional fossil fuels are becoming more viable, particularly as areas such as Canada and USA discover its reserves. ​

Question 214

how can geopolitics affect use of unconventional fossil fuels

Answer 214

geopolitics can make access to resources difficult, or cause the prices of oil and gas to increase, making unconventional fuels like shale gas more economically viable. ​

Question 215

where are Tar sands found

Answer 215

Canada

Question 216

where is shale gas found

Answer 216

USA

Question 217

where is deep water oil found

Answer 217

Brazil

Question 218

what has happened to the UKs energy mix since 2005

Answer 218

has decreased

Question 219

overall what contributed most to the uks energy mix between 1996 and 2017

Answer 219

natural gas

Question 220

what has seen the biggest drop in the UKs energy mix between 1996 and 2017

Answer 220

coal
from it’s peak in 2012 at approximately 130 terawatt hours, down to approximately 20 TWh in 2017. ​

Question 221

what has had the biggest increase in contribution to the uks energy mix between 1996 and 2017

Answer 221

Renewables has had the biggest increase in contributions to the UK energy mix, generating approximately 100 terawatt hours in 2017, compared to less than 10 TWh in 1996. ​

Question 222

what energy sources have remained consistent in the UKs energy mix between 1996 to 2017

Answer 222

nuclear

Question 223

what is the UK government very mindful of in terms of their energy mix

Answer 223

mindful of the need to become energy secure and to play its part in reducing global emissions.​

Question 224

what % of the UKs primary energy in 2021 did did oil and natural gas provide

Answer 224

nearly 80%
with petrol being used by transport and most of the gas used to generate electricity.​

Question 225

what has happened to UK energy consumption since 1970

Answer 225

Today we consume less energy than we did in 1970, despite the population increase of some 6.5 million – mainly due to a changing economy, moving away from industry.​

Question 226

what is a posotive of the Uks energy usage

Answer 226

The UK is now more efficient, both in producing energy and using it.​

Question 227

how much less energy do households and industry use in the UK

Answer 227

Household uses 12% less energy while industry uses 60% less – however this has been offset by transport as there’s been a big increase in vehicles and flights.​

Question 228

what are the 4 different ways the UK hopes to reduce its reliance on fossil fuels

Answer 228

Increasing renewable energy – especially wind and solar​
Developing a new generation of nuclear power stations, e.g. Hinkley Point C.​
Reduce energy use through technologies such as LED light bulbs.​
Recycling energy which would normally be wasted. ​

Question 229

what do we need to do to reduce enhanced climate change

Answer 229

seek alternative resources than fossil fuels

Question 230

recyclable energy

Answer 230

reprocessed energy

Question 231

eg of recyclable energy

Answer 231

nuclear power
heat recovery systems

Question 232

renewable energy

Answer 232

continuous flows of nature and can be constantly re used

Question 233

eg of renewable energy

Answer 233

biomass
HEP
solar
wave and tidal
wind

Question 234

how do heat recovery systems work

Answer 234

work via a ventilation system which is positioned at the top of the building. Rather than just draw the stale air out and replace it with new stuff, it first of all works to draw the heat from the outgoing air and passes it to the air which is coming in.​

Question 235

what usually happens in buildings without heat recovery systems

Answer 235

Normally, air circulates around an office, becomes stale and is replaced by colder air that it is warmed up by the ventilation system. What happens to that already warm, stale air? It simply gets expelled into the atmosphere. Heat recovery systems don’t replace the need for a boiler or other technology to heat your radiators but it does help them work more efficiently by recycling that warm air ensuring that you get the most out of it.​

Question 236

what are biofuels derived from

Answer 236

derived immediagtely from living matter

Question 237

eg of biofuels

Answer 237

agricultural crops
forestry or fishery products
various forms of waste

Question 238

what is a primary biofuel

Answer 238

fuelwood, wood chips and pellets and other organic material used in the unprocessed form, primarily for heating, cooking or electricity generation. ​

Question 239

what is a secondary biofuel

Answer 239

derived from the processing of biomass and include liquid biofuels such as ethanol and biodiesel which can be used by vehicles and in industrial processes.​

​

Question 240

what has happened to biofuel usage

Answer 240

There has been a recent surge with the commercial use of a number of new biofuels.​
These new, so-called ‘energy crops’ include wheat, maize, grasses, soy-beans and sugar cane. ​
In the UK, the two main biofuels are oilseed rape and sugar beet

Question 241

what is the biofuel production for the USA

Answer 241

15.5 billion litres between 2013-2018

Question 242

what is the biofuel production for brazil

Answer 242

11.9 billion litres between 2013 and 2018

Question 243

what is the biofuel production for china

Answer 243

1.2 billion litres between 2013 and 2018

Question 244

what is the biofuel production for india

Answer 244

1.4 billion litres between 2013 and 2018

Question 245

what is the biofuel production for Europe

Answer 245

4.5 billion litres between 2013 and 2018

Question 246

what are radical technologies

Answer 246

are new approaches using state of the art technology which aim to reduce carbon emissions in the near future.​

Question 247

radical technologies

Answer 247

hydrogen fuel cells
electric cars
carbon capture

Question 248

what are hydrogen fuel cells

Answer 248

Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, but usually combined with other elements. Once separate it provides an alternative to oil. Using it in a hydrogen engine in a car produces no pollution, just water as a waste product, making it more efficient than petrol or diesel. Separating hydrogen from other elements requires energy, which could be provided from renewable sources. ​

Question 249

eg of hydrogen fuel cells

Answer 249

Toyota developed a car with a range of 270 miles, which went on sale in California in 2015.​
Toyota developed a car with a range of 270 miles, which went on sale in California in 2015.​

Question 250

advantages of hydrogen fuel cells

Answer 250

it’s not going to run out​
Produces no pollution – if renewables are used.​
Could reduce dependence on fossil fuels for transport​

Question 251

disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cells

Answer 251

Requires a large amount of energy to separate elements.​
Water vapour is considered a greenhouse gas, so an increase in water vapour could lead to an increase in temperatures.​
If renewable sources aren’t available then fossil fuels may be needed to separate the different elements.

Question 252

electric cars/vehicles

Answer 252

An electric car uses electric motors, using energy from rechargeable batteries. A charging station, either at home and in public areas are then used to charge these batteries. Electric vehicles range from 62-340 miles depending on battery capacity and linked technologies. They are potentially suited to urban environments, helping reduce city air pollution as their range can be limited. They produce zero emissions and virtually no noise pollution. They are cheaper to run than a normal car due to low maintenance. However they are more expensive to buy as well as being a potentially hazard to pedestrians because they are so quiet.​

Question 253

eg of electrical cars/vehicles

Answer 253

The Tesla Model 3 was the world’s best selling electric vehicle from 2018 to 2019 and had a maximum range of 310 miles.​
According to Zap-Map in April 2016 there were 3,919 public charging locations in the UK which had to serve over 60,000 registered electric vehicles, with London having nearly 20% of these charging points compared to Wales who had 3%.​

Question 254

advantages of electric cars/vehicles

Answer 254

cheaper to run than a petrol/diesel car​
Produces no pollution.​
Could reduce dependence on fossil fuels for transport.​
Massively reduced noise pollution compared to a petrol/diesel car. ​

Question 255

disadvantages of electric cars/vehicles

Answer 255

expensive to buy due to the technology​
Charging times are improving but can take a while for a full charge. ​The quietness could be a hazard to pedestrians​
The ‘greenness’ of an electric vehicle depends on the energy profile of the country e.g. using renewables or non-renewables for charging.​

Question 256

carbon capture and storage

Answer 256

A system that collects CO2 emissions from fixed points such as power plants, then transports the gas and injects it into a suitable geological structure (over 800m below ground). CCS could cut global CO2 emissions by 19% and could extend the use of fossil fuels as well as encourage greater efficiency. However it’s expensive as there is complex technology involved and it isn’t certain whether the CO2 will stay trapped underground as it may leak as well as potentially cause earthquakes because of the pressure.​

​

Question 257

eg of carbon capture and storage

Answer 257

Canada opened the first coal-fired power plant with CCS in 2014 at a cost of US$1.3 billion. It reduces emissions by 90%.​
carbon engineering

Question 258

where is carbon engineering based

Answer 258

British Columbia Canada

Question 259

how many trees worth of work does one carbon capture plant do

Answer 259

40 million

Question 260

in carbon capture what ‘captures’ the carbon dioxide

Answer 260

large fans and chemical solutions which the particles stick to

Question 261

what happens to captured carbon

Answer 261

Made into pellets and stored in the ground or used to make fuels.​

Question 262

How much does direct air capture cost per ton of CO2? ​

Answer 262

$94-232 ​

Question 263

It is believed carbon capture is needed to keep global temperatures from increasing by how much? ​

Answer 263

1.5 degrees C

Question 264

Some companies capture carbon at the source and store it underground, how much carbon has Shell’s carbon capture project ‘Quest’ sequestered? ​

Answer 264

4 million tonnes

Question 265

How much money did Carbon Engineering raise in it’s most recent funding bid? ​

Answer 265

$68 million.​

Question 266

California requires what % of reduction in carbon intensity of fuels by 2030?

Answer 266

20%

Question 267

By 2040 what is the estimated % of oil and gas being used for meeting energy demand? ​

​

Answer 267

50%

Question 268

Synthetic Fuel is another potential project Carbon Engineering are developing. How much less carbon would synthetic fuel emmit

Answer 268

Between 70-90% less than normal fuels.​

Question 269

What is the price on carbon per ton? ​

Answer 269

$5-20 per ton.​

Question 270

What is the carbon price in Norway per metric ton? ​

Answer 270

$50 or more ​

Question 271

What is the carbon price in Switzerland per metric ton? ​

​

Answer 271

$99.​

Question 272

Each year how much CO2 is emitted globally? ​

Answer 272

40 billion tons​

Question 273

how much land`have Brazil and indonesia lost as a result of growing resource demand

Answer 273

net loss of over 500,000 ha of land.​

Question 274

how much land have the USA and india gained as a result of growing demand for resources

Answer 274

USA and India have gained between 250-500,000 ha of land.​

Question 275

what are the generalised trends of land gain/loss due to growing demand for resources

Answer 275

The most land that has been lost is the southern hemisphere.​
The most land gained is the northern hemisphere. ​

Question 276

regional changes of forest area

Answer 276

Tropical forests have lost half of their area since the 1960s, particularly in Africa and South America. ​

Question 277

what has happened to Indonesias rates of deforestation

Answer 277

Indonesia has overtaken Brazil in terms of the rate of deforestation. Around 25% of the rainforest has been cleared or burnt in 25 years for palm oil and logging.​

Question 278

how has deforestaion impacted temperate forests

Answer 278

Temperate forests (e.g. in the UK and USA) have a long history of exploitation: 90% was deforested by the 19th century.​

Question 279

how has deforestation affected boreal forests

Answer 279

Boreal forests have been increasingly threatened since the mid-20th century e.g. by oil and tar sands production in Russia and Canada.​

Question 280

how have human activities impacted the carbon cycle

Answer 280

The terrestrial biosphere sequesters/stores about ¼ of CO2 emissions annually, directly slowing down global warming.​
Growing demands for food, fuel and other resources have led to contrasting regional trends of land conversion. ​
This land conversion changes the land from a natural ecosystem to an alternative use, which usually reduces carbon and water stores as well as soil health. ​

Question 281

what human activities have impacted the carbon and hydrological cycle

Answer 281

Deforestation of temperate, boreal and tropical forests ​
afforestation
grassland conversation

Question 282

by 2015 what % of all global forest cover had been cleared

Answer 282

By 2015 30% of all global forest cover had been cleared, 20% degraded and the rest fragmented​

Question 283

how many hectares of land are deforested annually

Answer 283

13 million hectares of land are deforested annually (36 football fields a minute).​

Question 284

what % of earths surface do forests cover

Answer 284

Forests cover 30% of earths surface but only 15% are natural​

Question 285

what is 50% of deforestation for

Answer 285

for soy, palm oil, beef and paper production​

Question 286

what causes deforestation

Answer 286

50% of all deforestation is for soy, palm oil, beef and paper production.​
Dams and reservoirs.​
Infrastructure.​
Open cast mining for rare minerals.​

Question 287

methods used for deforestation

Answer 287

Clear cutting – used for loggings, removes all primary forest. ​
Slash-and-burn – used for agriculture – trees and cut and set alight. Ash from the burnt trees provides nutrients in the soil.​

Question 288

impacts of deforestation on the carbon cycle

Answer 288

Reduction in storage in soil and biomass, especially above ground. ​
Reduction in CO2 intake through photosynthesis flux.​
Increased combustion flux to atmosphere by burning and decomposing vegetation.​

Question 289

impacts of deforestation on the water cycle

Answer 289

Reduced interception leading to changes in infiltration through the soil to ground water stores.​
Increased raindrop erosion and surface run off leading to more sediment in rivers.​
Increased aridity ‘downwind’ from loss of evapotranspiration. ​

Question 290

eg of deforestation

Answer 290

Since the 1950s Madagascar’s forests have been deforested at a rapid rate.​
This is due to an expanding population, growing demand for hardwoods and debt repayments. ​
The Madagascan government encouraged farmers to clear more land to grow cash crops.​
Before 1950 there were 11.6 million hectares of tropical forest but by 1985 it had reduced down to 3.8 million hectares. ​

Question 291

How much of the forest in Madagascar has been deforested?

Answer 291

90%

Question 292

Who is to blame for the mass deforestation in madagascar?

Answer 292

Industrial companies​

Question 293

What do the local people in madagascar use the forest for?

Answer 293

Charcoal for electricity and fuel, buildings.​

Question 294

Why are the forests in Madagascar so vulnerable?

Answer 294

Expanding population with no other resources, no international aid, no help/money from the government, people have to fend for themselves, growing international demand for tropical hardwood. ​

Question 295

What are the solutions to deforestation in madagascar?

Answer 295

External workers to work locally to provide an alternative solution for the local population. ​

Question 296

What are the negative impacts if the rate of deforestation continues in madagascar?

Answer 296

No remaining forest, long term droughts and extending monsoon seasons.

Question 297

what are the hydrological impacts of deforestation in madagascar

Answer 297

There are lots of impacts on rivers, landscapes and soil health:​
An increase in sediment has turned some rivers red – soil erosion now exceeds 400 tonnes per hectare per year in some areas.​
Extensive logging of inland rainforests and coastal mangroves means that, after heavy rainfall, soil is washed from the hillsides into streams and rivers and eventually clogs the coastal waterways with sediment. ​

Question 298

eg of a river in Madagascar affected by deforestation

Answer 298

the Betsibokar river Madagascar

Question 299

afforestation

Answer 299

planting trees on land that has never had forest, or has been without forest for a long time.​

Question 300

reforestation

Answer 300

planting trees in places with recent tree cover, replacing lost primary forests.​

Question 301

what is afforestation made up of

Answer 301

monocultures (1 single crop/species) such as palm oil. They often store less carbon, use more water and are disease prone.

Question 302

what is monoculture

Answer 302

is the agricultural practice of producing or growing a single crop, plant, or livestock species, variety, or breed in a field or farming system at a time​

Question 303

eg of afforestation

Answer 303

China’s Three-North Shelterbelt Project – a 4,500km green wall of trees designed to reduce desertification – demonstrates many of these issues.​

Question 304

impacts of afforestation on the carbon cycle

Answer 304

Monocultures of commercial trees such as in palm oil plantations often store less carbon although it’s better than having no vegetation at all.​
Biodiversity may be impacted as a result of habitat changes.​
Monocultures tend to be more disease prone having a negative impact on biodiversity.​

Question 305

impacts of afforestation on the water cycle

Answer 305

Monocultures tend to use more water leading to less infiltration and groundwater rates. ​
Decreased raindrop erosion.​
Evapotranspiration rates may alter surrounding downwind ecosystems. ​

Question 306

what are the two main types of grassland

Answer 306

temperate grasslands
tropical/savannah grasslands

Question 307

eg of grassland conversion

Answer 307

between 2007 and 2015, a biofuel ‘rush’ swept across the American Midwest – often referred to as the Prairies. ​
During this ‘rush’ farmers were encouraged to grow corn, soya, canola (a type of rapeseed) and sugar cane as part of the US Environmental Protection Agency’s Renewable Fuel Standard Policy
By 2013 the price of corn trebled, and a number of US states were cashing in. ​

Question 308

what did the US Environmental Protection Agency’s Renewable Fuel Standard Policy which aim to do

Answer 308

Increase the amount of ethanol being used in petrol​
Boost the economies of rural US states​
Reduce US dependence on overseas oil imports​
Reduce CO2 emissions from transport​

Question 309

grasslands

Answer 309

traditionally used for cattle ranching - were ploughed up, and in some states the area of corn being cultivated doubled.​

Question 310

what happened to grassland size between 2007 and 2015 in the USA

Answer 310

Over 5.5 million hectares of natural grassland disappeared across the American Midwest, which matches the rate of rainforest deforestation across Brazil, Malaysia and Indonesia.​

Question 311

benefits of natural grasslands

Answer 311

Trap moisture and floodwater​
Absorb toxins from the soil, maintaining their health.​
Providing cover for dry soils – preventing soil erosion.​
Maintain natural habitats.​
Acts as a carbon sink and a terrestrial carbon store. ​

Question 312

drawbacks of grassland conversion

Answer 312

Soils release CO2 when grasslands are initially removed and through annual ploughing.​
Biofuel crops need carbon-based nitrogen fertiliser and chemical pesticides, so they produce a net increase in CO2 emissions.​
Biofuels consume a lot of water, impacting on local aquifers for irrigation.
Cultivated soils are liable to erosion by surface runoff and wind​
Natural habitats lost​

Question 313

causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect

Answer 313

agriculture, industry, transport, deforestation, electricity generation, cement production, wetland/peatland loss.​

Question 314

consequences of the enhanced greenhouse effect

Answer 314

increase in frequency and intensity of storms and tropical storms; rising temperatures; rising sea levels; more frequent floods, droughts and heat waves. ​

Question 315

what is drought

Answer 315

An extended period of deficient rainfall relative to the statistical average of that region measured over a long period of time.​

Question 316

how does climate change cause drought

Answer 316

Shifting of global weather patterns​
Shifting climate zones​
Scientists at the University of Colorado have found that a warming of 2 degrees resulted in about 5% of the Earths land area effectively shifting into a new climate zone. ​
The pace of change then increases for the next 2 degrees of warming with an additional 10% of land area shifting to a new climate zone. ​

Question 317

general trends of risk of drought

Answer 317

Mid-latitudes in the northern hemisphere are at the most risk.​
Highly populated countries are at the highest risk of drought.​

Question 318

which european countries have high risk of drought

Answer 318

Moldova and Ukraine.​

Question 319

risk of drought for different areas

Answer 319

An expansion of subtropical deserts and a poleward movement of stormy, wet weather in the mid-latitudes
Changing snow/rainfall patterns and increasing temperatures in mountain regions could cause reliable streams/springs dry as well as melt glaciers resulting in a very little run off in the future. ​

Question 320

drought case study

Answer 320

the amazon basin

Question 321

in what years did the amazon basin suffer severe droughts

Answer 321

2005, 2010, and 2015-16

Question 322

how does the amazon basin play a key role in the earths carbon cycle

Answer 322

The Amazon Basin plays a key role in the Earth’s carbon cycle, holding 17% of the terrestrial vegetation carbon store.​

Question 323

impacts of drought in the amazon

Answer 323

Billions of trees died, releasing greenhouse gases.​
Rivers dried up, lots of fish died.​
The drier the forest gets, the less carbon it can store.​
Fires broke out – burning trees and litter releasing CO2.​
Decomposition of dead vegetation​

Question 324

how much c02 does the rainforest normally absorb

Answer 324

1.5 billion tonnes

Question 325

in 2005 how many tonnes of c02 were released from the amazon basin

Answer 325

5 billion tonnes

Question 326

in 2010 how many tonnes of c02 were released from the amazon basin

Answer 326

8 billion tonnes

Question 327

future concerns about drought in the amazon basin

Answer 327

There are further concerns that, as climate change increases temperatures and alters rainfall patterns across South America, the Amazon rainforest will change from a carbon sink to a carbon source – accelerating global warming. ​

Question 328

how many hectares of forest did deforestation affect between 2000 and 2010

Answer 328

13 million

Question 329

what is palm oil

Answer 329

Palm oil is the most commonly produced vegetable oil - used in foods like frozen pizzas and biscuits as well as cosmetics and biofuels. ​

Question 330

how much palm oil is produced each year

Answer 330

66 million tonnes

Question 331

what country is the largest producer of palm oil

Answer 331

Indonesia is the largest producer and in 2015 its GHG emissions overtook those of the USA. ​

Question 332

how many land conflicts were linked to palm oil in 2016

Answer 332

700
this was because indigenous and local people are often driven out of areas they have inhabited for generations.​

Question 333

how many people depend on forests

Answer 333

over 1.6 million people
and over 90% of these are the poorest in societies

Question 334

what % of global diversity are forests a source of

Answer 334

80%

Question 335

how did the UN descrive forests

Answer 335

fundamental to human wellbeing and survival

Question 336

what % of the global economy income do forests provide

Answer 336

1.1%

Question 337

how many formal and informal jobs do forests provide

Answer 337

13.2 million formal jobs
41 million informal jobs

Question 338

what do forests provide

Answer 338

water purification
Aesthetic, educational, spiritual, recreational​
Improve food and nutrition security​
Source of livestock fodder​
Goods: water, wood, fibres, fuels, foods​
Fuel wood source for 1/3 people globally for cooking and boiling water. ​
A genetic pool- a source for improving plant strains and medicines​
Nutrient cycling- soil formation and primary production ​
Help prevent flooding and landslides​
Maintains atmosphere through photosynthesis​

Question 339

forest recovery

Answer 339

Despite huge losses from deforestation each year, the rate of deforestation has slowed!​
Between 1990 and 2015 the rate of net global deforestation slowed down by more than 50% and total forest carbon emissions decreased by 25% according to the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the UN (FAO). ​
This change is particularly happening​

in developed countries. ​

Question 340

what is kuznets curve

Answer 340

A model that suggests that societies reach a tipping point where exploitation changes more towards protection. ​

Question 341

what factors affect the timings on kuznets curve

Answer 341

Wealth of countries​
Rising knowledge of the role the environment plays in human wellbeing​
Aid given to poorer nations to help choices over exploitation​
Political systems and enforcement of laws​
Participation of locals​
Power of TNCs​

Question 342

eg of forest protection

Answer 342

indonesia
In May 2011 Indonesia’s president declared a ‘forest moratorium’ - aimed at trying to reduce deforestation. They received $1 billion funding from the UN and Norwegian government. ​
The Moratorium stopped new lands getting forest clearance permits. ​
By 2013 emissions had fallen by 1-2.5%. However illegal logging is still an issue. ​
In 2015 the moratorium was extended to help Indonesia further reduce its CO2 emissions by 26% by 2020. ​

Question 343

what will help decrease the rate of deforestation

Answer 343

increased sustainable management

Question 344

what % of forests are now classed as conserved

Answer 344

13% of forests (534 million hectares)

Question 345

which countries have the largest national parks and forest reserves

Answer 345

Brazil and the USA

Question 346

which types of forests havce increased/decreased

Answer 346

Temperate forest areas (mainly in developed countries) has increased, although tropical rainforests (mainly in developing countries) has decreased.​

Question 347

what has happened to brazils deforestation rate

Answer 347

Brazil has halved it’s deforestation rate since 2000 but continues to lose forest.​

Question 348

what has forest cover in the UK dropped from

Answer 348

80%-10%
following centuries of exploitation

Question 349

what has the Forestry Commision done to combat the exploitation of forests in the UK

Answer 349

planted fast growing conifers like Sitka Spruce.
Forest cover increased by 25% between 1870 and 1947 and by 50% between 1948-1995. By 2016 13% of the UK was forested with increasing numbers of indigenous species being planted. ​

Question 350

why are oceans important for the carbon cycle

Answer 350

They are a major carbon sink:​
they have absorbed about 30% of the C02 produced as a result of human activities since 1800, and about 50% of that produced by burning fossil fuels.​
Due to this absorption the acidity of our oceans is changing which is a big problem.​

Question 351

what happens during acidification of oceans

Answer 351

During acidification, carbonic acid reacts with carbonate ions in the water to form bicarbonate. The higher the acidity, the more it dissolves carbonate shells​

Question 352

how has ocean acidification affected the pH of the ocean

Answer 352

Ocean acidification has lowered the pH of the ocean by about 0.1. That means that it’s now 30% more acidic than it was in 1750, before the Industrial Revolution. ​

Question 353

effects of ocean acidification

Answer 353

There are many important natural processes that are affected by the oceans acidity/alkalinity (pH). ​
Most biological activity and all photosynthesis takes place near the surface. ​
Changes in ocean chemistry has substantial direct and indirect affects on these organisms (such as their life cycle) and their habitat. ​
Marine photosynthetic organisms and animals such as corals, make shells and plates out of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). This process of ‘calcification’ is massively affected the less alkaline there is in the oceans. ​

Question 354

what is coral

Answer 354

is an animal which is like a small bag. The opening on top is the mouth. Tentacles (little arms) around the mouth carry a sting which paralyses small animals which are then eaten by the coral.​
When the animal dies, new polyps live on top of the older structure.​

Question 355

what gives coral its colour

Answer 355

algae

Question 356

what happens when coral becomes stressed

Answer 356

When coral becomes stressed, corals evict the algae, turning it white. If bleaching continues, the coral will die due to starvation. ​

Question 357

impact of ocean acidification

Answer 357

coral bleaching

Question 358

what causes ocean acidification

Answer 358

Increased amount of CO2 absorbed into the oceans producing more bicarbonate and increasing acidity of water. ​

Question 359

What was the pH of the oceans in the late 1800s?

Answer 359

8.2​

Question 360

What is the projected pH of the oceans by 2100?​

Answer 360

7.8​

Question 361

What is the temperature range that coral survives best in?​

Answer 361

23-29˚C​

Question 362

What is happening to the trend of coral bleaching? ​

Answer 362

It’s increasing and is occurring more frequently. ​

Question 363

what are the consequences if rising temperatures

Answer 363

ocean acidity
rising temps= increased rates of evaporation

Question 364

what does rising temps and therefore rising rates of evaporation impact on

Answer 364

precipitation patterns
river
water stores (cryosphere and drainage basin stores)

Question 365

how does rising temperatures impact precipitation pattersn

Answer 365

Existing weather patterns will get stronger (wet places will get wetter and dry places will get drier). ​
This is because warm air traps more water – scientists expect more water to fall on wet places.​

Question 366

how does rising temperatures impact river regimes

Answer 366

‘the annual variation in discharge or flow, at a particular point’.​
The character of the regime is influenced by climate.​
Increased temperatures = more snow/glacier melt, and an increased in the amount and intensity of precipitation

Question 367

how does rising temperatures impact water stores

Answer 367

Cryosphere has been losing mass as ice sheets and glaciers melt.​
Arctic temperatures have risen twice as fast as global averages in the past 20 years.​
This means huge implications for ocean currents, air circulation, sea level rise and flooding.​

Question 368

which river has rising temperatures impacted

Answer 368

Yukon is a territory in the far northwest of Canada and a significant part of it lies within the Arctic Circle.​
Like most Arctic and sub-artic areas it has seen temperatures rise sharply, and forecasts are for continued warning.

Question 369

How has The increasing temperature had implications for precipitation patterns, river regimes and water stores in the yukon basin

Answer 369

Increasing temperatures lead to increased evaporation and atmospheric water vapour.​

Question 370

what has happened to winter precipitation in yukon

Answer 370

Across Yukon, winter precipitation increased between 1950 and 1998. However a greater proportion fell as rain in spring and less as snow (as previously).​

Question 371

what has happened to snowmelt in yukon

Answer 371

Snowmelt now begins earlier and snow cover is decreasing. This alters river regimes, bringing earlier peak flows to most river basins.​

Question 372

what happened to the total ice area in yukon between 1958 and 2008

Answer 372

shrank by 22%
and, as glaciers recede, streamflow is decreasing – despite an initial increase in meltwater.​

Question 373

what is happeneing to permafrost in yukon

Answer 373

Climate change is leading to thawing of permafrost – so water penetrates deeper into the soil, instead of forming surface runoff.​
As the permafrost thaws, climate change could increase the amount of groundwater. ​

Question 374

by what % have inflows into the yukon river increased by since 2000

Answer 374

Since 2000, inflows to the Yukon river have increased by 39% due to increasing temperature and precipitation.​

Question 375

how have rising temperatures impacted the arctic

Answer 375

Over the last 20 years the ice sheets in the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets have been losing mass and the Arctic sea ice and northern hemisphere spring snow cover have continued to decrease in extent and thickness.​
The Arctic acts as an early warning system, acting as a barometer of the environmental impacts resulting from fossil fuel use.​

Question 376

what has happened to average arctic temperatures in the past decade

Answer 376

In the past few decades, average Arctic temperatures have risen twice as fast as global averages: 3-4- degrees in Alaska and north-west Canada. ​
Which could soon increase another 4-5 degrees over land, and 7 degrees over the ocean. ​

Question 377

effects of rising temperatures on the water cycle

Answer 377

Warm water flowing into the Arctic from the Pacific and Atlantic.​
Rising local temperatures – increased evaporation.​
Shrinkage of sea ice; the Arctic ice cap averages only 3m thick and melting is increasing faster than anticipated.​
Run-off of fresh, cold water which will alter marine ecosystems and food chains dependent on the saline waters; predicted to affect areas outside the Arctic Ocean by 2100.​
Funnelling of more cold water into the oceanic conveyor belt.​

Question 378

effects of rising temperatures on the carbon cycle

Answer 378

Increased or new emissions of: CH4 (methane) from destabilisation of wetlands and sea floor deposits containing methane hydrate, stored for thousands of years.​
Increased or new emissions of: mainly CH4 and some CO2 from thawing permafrost.​
Increased or new emissions of: CO2 from increased forest fires as boreal forests dry out; they may also absorb CO2 and CH4 from the atmosphere.​

Question 379

where are mangroves found

Answer 379

Mangroves are found along tropical and sub-tropical coasts of Africa, Australia, Asia and the Americas.​

Question 380

How much carbon do mangroves sequester per hectare, per year?​

Answer 380

They sequester almost 1.5 metric tonnes of carbon per hectare, per year. ​

Question 381

How is it that very little carbon is respired into the atmosphere from mangroves?​

Answer 381

Their soils consist of thick organic layers of litter, humus and peat, which contain high levels of carbon – over 10%.​
As they are submerged twice a day by high tides their soils are anaerobic (without oxygen), bacteria and microbes can’t survive without oxygen so decomposition of plant matter is slow – meaning little carbon is respired back into the atmosphere so is stored for thousands of years.​

Question 382

In what ways do mangroves protect coastlines?​

Answer 382

Mangroves can provide many benefits to our communities:​
they stabilise the coastline against erosion.​
They provide protection and shelter against extreme weather (e.g. storms winds and floods) and tsunamis, by absorbing and dispersing surges.​

They provide nurseries for coastal fish away from predators.​

Question 383

How much of global mangrove forests have been lost since 1950?​

Answer 383

globally half of all mangrove forests have been lost since 1950.​

Question 384

What percentage of forests have been lost due to draining and clearing mangrove forests for tourism, shrimp farming and aquaculture?​

Answer 384

We are draining and clearing mangrove forests for tourism, shrimp farming and aquaculture – this has accounted for over 25% of the loss of the forests.​

Question 385

How many people does fishing support?​

Answer 385

The FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation) estimates that fishing supports 500 million people, 90% of which are in developing countries.​

Question 386

Fish provide 16% of the annual protein consumption for how many people?​

Answer 386

Fish provide 16% of the annual protein consumption for 3 billion people, and is the main source of cheap protein for 3 billion people.​

Question 387

What % of marine species do coral reefs shelter?​

Answer 387

Coral reefs shelter 25% of marine species.​

Question 388

What is happening to marine organisms in the North Sea?​

Answer 388

Research carried out in the North Sea, suggests that marine organisms may be responding faster to climate change then terrestrial plants and animals, with some shifts of animals and some plants towards the poles to compensate for a warming environment. ​

Question 389

How much have krill stocks declined by in some parts of the Southern Ocean? ​

Answer 389

. Arctic krill stocks (food for whales) are declining by up to 75% per decade in some parts of the Southern Ocean.​

The main cause of damage has been climate change, added to reefs being lost by coastal pollution caused by industrial and agricultural runoff.​

Question 390

egs of degradation of the carbon cycle

Answer 390

egs- madagascar, amazon rainforest, indonesia
land conversions-
deforestation eg madagascar
afforestation eg palm oil
grassland conversion eg american midwest

Question 391

implications of degradation of the carbon cycle for human well being

Answer 391

Loss of various activates, resources, less maintenance/regulation of atmosphere/carbon cycle = increase mental health difficulties, loss of education (etc.)​
Increased CO2 in atmosphere – rising temperatures = global warming.
Loss of suitable farmland due to soil erosion, lack of nutrients, spread of disease – difficult with an increased population​
Social, economic, environmental ​

Question 392

implications for degredation of the water cycle on human wellbeing

Answer 392

Increased amounts of drought – less trees = less water vapour in atmosphere. Amazons pumps 20 billion metric tonnes of water into atmosphere daily. Since 1990 more extreme droughts & flooding due to climate shifts (e.g. Amazon)​
Increased amounts of flooding​
Coral reef and marine species loss = loss of habitats for fish, food sources for people and loss of tourism industry e.g. Great Barrier Reef.​
Mangrove loss – loss of coastal protection/stabilisation.​
Social, economic, environmental ​

​

Question 393

what do climate scientists predict will happen to surface temperatures

Answer 393

Climate Scientists predict that surface temperatures will continue to rise, with increases between 2000-2100 in the range of 2-6°C.​

Question 394

why are Future emissions, atmospheric concentration levels and climate warming uncertain

Answer 394

physical factors
human factors
feedback mechanisms

Question 395

physical factors causing uncertainty

Answer 395

Oceans and forests act as carbon sinks.​
Their response to increased GHG emissions and higher temperatures will continue to affect the global climate for possible hundreds of years.​
Deforestation - overall the amount of forested land is on a global decline.​

Question 396

what human factors will lead to uncertainty

Answer 396

economic growth
energy source
population change

Question 397

how will economic growth lead to uncertainty

Answer 397

After economic crashes, e.g. the 2008 Financial Crash, there is an expectation that they’ll be a rise in emissions during recovery of global GDP. Fortunately after 2008, emissions fell to 1% by 2012-13 down from 4%, then fell to 0.5% in 2014. Total carbon emissions still reached a record high. ​

Question 398

how does energy source lead to uncertainty

Answer 398

Energy consumption grew by 2% between 2008-2014. However renewables made up two-thirds of the increase in electricity production in 2015.​

Question 399

how does population change lead to uncertainty

Answer 399

Increasing affluence means a potential extra billion consumers by 2050. Changing diets and increase mobility means more emissions.​

Question 400

eg of economic growth

Answer 400

By 2014 the three largest CO2 emitters were China, the USA and India. In 2000, China overtook the USA because of a global shift in manufacturing projections and its rapid urbanisation and industrialisation. ​
In terms of CO2 per capita, China is ranked 55th at 6.23 metric tonnes per capita; the USA 8th at 17.6 and India 127th at 1.7 – reflecting the level of economic development, with a positive relationship between economic growth and CO2 emissions

Question 401

how do feedback mechanisms lead to uncertainty

Answer 401

Feedback mechanisms can either dampen (negative feedback) or amplify (positive feedback) responses to a changing climate.​
Peatlands: Warming causes peat to dry out as water tables fall, increasing decomposition rates and releasing methane. A warming of 4˚C causes a 40% loss of soil organic carbon from shallow peat, and 86% from deep peat.​
Permafrost: The melting of permafrost releases trapped CO2 and methane.​

Question 402

what is a tipping point

Answer 402

A climate tipping point is a critical threshold whereby a carbon sink could become a carbon source.​

Question 403

what Two particular phenomena are capable of creating tipping points ​

Answer 403

forest die back
Changes to thermohaline circulation​

Question 404

forest dieback

Answer 404

Rainfall in the amazon basin is largely recycled from moisture within the forest. If the rainforest is subject to drought, trees die back.​
A tipping point can be reached when the level of die back actually stops the recycling of moisture – resulting in further die back. ​

Question 405

thermohaline circulation

Answer 405

Cold, deep water in the North Atlantic forms part of the thermohaline circulation.​
To keep the ‘conveyor belt’ of warm water heading from the Tropics towards Britain, heavy, salty water must sink in the north.​
However, melting of ice sheets release large amounts of freshwater (less salty meaning its lighter) into the ocean – blocking and slowing the conveyor down.​
As ice sheets melt, the ocean circulation is susceptible to a critical tipping point. ​

Question 406

what two approaches for the future did the IPCC outline

Answer 406

adaption
mitigation

Question 407

methods of mitigation

Answer 407

carbon taxation
renewable switching
energy efficiency
afforestation
carbon capture and storage

Question 408

carbon taxation

Answer 408

the carbon price floor tax sets a minimum price companies have to pay to emit c02
it was unpopular with both industry and environmental groups and had debatable effects on emmisions
in 2015 the policy was ‘frozen’
lower road taxes for low carbon emmiting cars were scrapped in 2015
in 2015 oil and gas exploration tax relief was expanded to support fossil fuels hence the fracking debate

Question 409

renewable switching

Answer 409

the relationship between big energy providers and the government dictates the amount of switching from fossil fuels to renewables and nuclear power
renewables (solar, wind and wave) provide intermmittent electricity while fossil fuels provide the continuos power essential for our current infrastructure
The Climate change levy designed in 2001 to encourage renewable energy investment and use was cut in 2015

Question 410

energy efficiency

Answer 410

the green deal scheme encouraged energy saving improvements to homes such as efficient boilers and lighting and improved insulation- was scrapped in 2015
energy suppliers must comply with the energy company obligation scheme to deliver energy efficient measures to householders

Question 411

afforestation

Answer 411

tree planting in the uk is increasing, helping carbon sequestration
it involves the forestry commision, charities such as the national trust and woodland trust, landowners and local authorities
the big tree plant campaign encourages communities to plant 1 million trees mostly in urban areas

Question 412

carbon capture and storage

Answer 412

few actual geologic CCs projects exist globally despite its potential
Canadas Boundary dam is the only large scale working scheme
in 2015 the uk government cancelled its investment into full scale projects at gas and coal powered plants in Peterhead in scotland and Drax in yorkshire respectivley

Question 413

what does mitigation need to be succesfull

Answer 413

mitigation needs agreement at national, global and individual scales. ​

Question 414

what are the 4 different players in global agreements and national action on mitigation

Answer 414

1. Global - UN roadmaps and goals e.g Kyoto protocol
2. National- TNCs. Shell’s research and management as well as groups like Greenpeace.
3. Local - Winchester’s WinACC who lobby for local changes in attitude and actions​
4. Public - online e-petitioning e.g the 38 degrees campaign. ​

Question 415

global players in mitigation

Answer 415

Global - UN roadmaps and goals​
A roadmap is a essentially a ‘toolbox’ - a collection of guidance and advice.​
The UN has a roadmap to help local areas and communities take part in and work towards the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It covers a range of strategies that can be adapted to the specific contexts and needs of different cities ad regions. ​
The UN SDG Roadmap has 5 parts: awareness raising; advocacy; implementation; monitoring; and where do we go from here?​
It aims to support local and regional governments and their associations to implement and monitor the SDGs and to influence national policy-making with a view to creating an enabling environment for action at local and regional level. ​

Question 416

role of national players in mititgation

Answer 416

National - TNCs. Shell’s research and management as well as groups like Greenpeace ​
Shell​
Invested heavily in the lowest-carbon biofuel, through a joint venture with Cosan in Brazil as well as supporting second-generation biofuel options.​
‘New Energies’ business was created in 2016, aiming to explore investment opportunities in energy solutions that combine wind and solar power with gas.​
‘Shell Ventures’, established in 1996 invests in start-ups and small/medium enterprises to encourage scale and growth. There focused is mixed, however renewables is an area receiving investment. Specifically supporting customers meeting their personal energy use, as well as investing in wind and solar and storage solutions. ​
Greenpeace​
An international organisation founded in 1971.​
Has the aim of having a green and peaceful world and work on several priority campaigns such as: fossil fuels; deforestation; ocean plastic. ​
Greenpeace investigates those responsible for environmental crime and work with affected communities to identify solutions.​

Question 417

local players in mitigation

Answer 417

Local - Winchester’s WinACC who lobby for local changes in attitude and actions​
A local environmental organisation that ‘thinks globally’ but ‘starts locally’.​
WinACC began in 2007, seeking to influence behaviour change at the grassroots (local) and policymakers level, becoming successful on a variety of community projects and the priority given to climate change by Winchester City Council. ​
The group works with the local council to lower the carbon footprint of the Winchester District by inspiring sustainable living. They work with a variety of people including local residents; businesses; educators; and policy and decision makers. ​
There aim is to cut the carbon footprint of Winchester District by 60% by 2030 and to ensure that at least 15% of the energy used in the district comes from local renewable sources by the end of 2020.​

Question 418

public players in mititgation

Answer 418

Public - online e-petitioning e.g. the 38 degrees campaign. ​
38 Degrees is an online campaigning organisation, involving more than 2 million people from every corner of the UK. ​
The organisation was launched in 2009 and is a not-for-profit company.​
It aims to empower citizens by providing easy ways for people to take action against issues that they care about, including climate change.​

Question 419

what is the kyototo ptotocol

Answer 419

an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, which commits its parties by setting internationally binding emission reduction targets.​
Recognising that developed countries are principally responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of industrial activity, the protocol places a heavier burden on developed nations under the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities.”​
The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. The detailed rules for the implementation of the Protocol were adopted at COP 7 in Marrakesh, Morocco, in 2001, and are referred to as the “Marrakesh Accords.” Its first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012.​

Question 420

successes of the kyoto agreement

Answer 420

operates until 2020, it started a global approach to tackling anthropogenic climate change, it was the beggining of regular UN conferences on climate change
the clean development mechanism supports 75 developing countries in developing less polluting technology
kyoto paved the way for new rules and measurements on low carbon legislation such as the uks 2008 climate change act, china is slowing emmisions (may be due to an economic downturn and greener energy)
by 2012 emmisions were 22.6% lower than 1990 levels well beyond the 5% goal, however 2015 showed a 65% increase above 1990 levels mainly driven by india and china

Question 421

failures of the kyoto agreement

Answer 421

slow ratification, the uk was one of the first but others struggled (russia) or withdrew (usa, canada and japan) fearing economic impacts
only industrialised countries were asked to sign, not developing nations, the top emmitters- the usa and china- were left out of the agreement
complex trading systems were started allowing the trading of ‘carbon credits’, buying emmisions allowances from countries not needing them, carbon sinks were allowed to offset emmisions- both these are criticised for allowing polluters to pollute
emmisions reductions may be because of other factors such as cheaper gas replacing coal and a global shift of manufacturing from MEDcs to the global soth

Question 422

paris agreement COP21

Answer 422

195 participating countries agreed to the landmark Paris Climate Agreement in November 2016, accounting for 66% of global emissions.​
It was the first universally legally binding global climate deal
There was an overarching aim: to limit temperature increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.​
Countries set their own goals to reduce emissions. ​
Countries should honestly report their progress every 5 years. ​

Question 423

advantages of the paris agreement

Answer 423

Countries can set their own individual targets
195 countries signed up.​
Individual targets all work towards of limiting temperature increase to 1.5˚C above pre-industrial levels. ​

Question 424

disadvantages of the paris agreement

Answer 424

No punishment if targets aren’t met
Signing the agreement and acting on it are two different things
A national effort is required for targets to be met, including public backing, which can be tricky
Progress reporting may not be accurate.​
Not a truly global agreement as developing countries are omitted that haven’t created the pollution.​

Question 425

COP26 paris agreement- follow up

Answer 425

The COP26 summit brought parties together to accelerate action towards the goals of the Paris Agreement and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.​
This meeting reviewed the plans and updates submitted from countries, reviewing how they will reduce their emissions – these are known as nationally determined contributions (NDCs).​
COP26 concluded that all countries agreed to keep the 1.5°C target and the ‘Glasgow Climate Pact’ means that the 1.5°C remains in sight and scales up action on dealing with climate impacts, but it will only be delivered with concerted and immediate global efforts