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Kaplan Biochemistry > Carbohydrate Structure and Carbohydrate Metabolism > Flashcards

Carbohydrate Structure and Carbohydrate Metabolism Flashcards

1
Q

Carobohydrate with an aldehyde as their most oxidized group. Numbering starts at the most oxidized carbon, which is the carbonyl carbon.

A

aldose

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2
Q

Carbohydrate with a ketone as their most oxidize group. Carbonyl carbon is numbered number 2.

A

Ketose

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3
Q

Simplest aldose sugar

A

Glyceraldehyde

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4
Q

Simplest Ketose sugar.

A

Dihydroxyacetone

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5
Q

Fructose Structure

A

a ketohexose.

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6
Q

Glucose Sugar

A

an aldohexose sugar

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7
Q

Structure of galactose.

A

aldohexose sugar

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8
Q

Mannose Structure

A

aldohexose sugar

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9
Q

Compounds with the same chemical structure, but differ from one another only in terms of spatial arrangement.

A

Stereoisomers (optical isomers)

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10
Q

Non-superimposable mirror images of one another.

A

Enantiomers

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11
Q

Carbon that has four different groups attached to it.

A

chiral carbon

(any molecule that contains one chiral carbon and no internal symmetry has at least one enantiomer)

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12
Q

3D arrangement of groups attached to chiral carbon.

A

absolute configuration

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13
Q

How do you determine the amount of enantiomers a molecule has?

A

2n

n = # chiral carbons

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14
Q

How are are disaccharides/polysaccharides linked together?

A

glycosidic linkages

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15
Q

Polysaccharide that serves as an energy storage carbohydrate in animals. (with alpha 1,4 and 1,6 linkages)

A

Glycogen

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16
Q

Polysaccharide that serves as an energy storage carbohydrate in plants.

A

Starch

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17
Q

Idigestable plant polysaccharide that has B-glycosidic linkages.

A

Cellulose

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18
Q

Exception to the rule that animals cannot digest polysaccharides with B-glycosodic linkages. (this is an enzyme)

A

Lactase

(cleaves b-glycosidic linkages found in lactase - we make thisn enzyme as a child for our mother’s milk and as we get older stop producing it, which makes us increasingly lactose intolerant).

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19
Q

List the four important steps (in chronological order) of aerobic cellular respiration.

A
  1. Glycolysis
  2. Pyruvate Dehydrogenous Complex
  3. Kreb’s Cycle
  4. Electron Transport Chain
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20
Q

What does glycolysis start with and what does it end with?

A

Glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi + 2NAD+ ► 2Pyruvate + 2ATP + 2H2O + 2H+ + 2NADH

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21
Q

What are the steps that happen during Glycolysis?

A
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22
Q

NADH is made when ___ goes to ___. ATP is made when a a substrate ____ a phosphate and ADP is made when substrate _____ and phosphate.

A
  1. de (aldehyde)
  2. ate (glycerate (COOH))
  3. loses
  4. gains
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23
Q

What is the committed step?

A

F6P ► F-1,6-BP

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24
Q

what is PFK allosterically regulated by?

A

ATP

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25
Q

Since under anaerobic conditions the ETC and PDC cannot function, what metabolic process allows for the regeration of NAD+ (and ultimately the production of ATP)?

A

Fermentation?

26
Q

How is fermentation carried out? What are the two types?

A

Pyruvate is used as the oxidizing reagant (gets reduced) to oxidize NADH and replenish NAD+. This cellular respiration to continue without oxygen (oly via glycolytic pathway)

  1. Reduction of Pyruvate to ethanol
  2. Reduction of Pyruvate to lactate (lactic acid)
27
Q

why is fermentation an insufficient route for cellular respiration?

A

Ethanol and lactic acid concentrations build up, but have no true use in the cell. Thus, the build-up can be poisoness at high concentrations.

28
Q

What happens to lactate in human cells after it is produced?

A
  1. Travels to liver
  2. Converted back to Pyruvate when O2 becomes available
  3. Pyruvate can enter gluconeogensis or Kreb’s Cycle (in liver or muscle)
  4. During this time NAD+ is converted to NADH in the liver, which can then be used to make ATP in oxidative phosphorylation
29
Q
A
30
Q

Where does glycolysis occur?

A

cytoplasm

31
Q
A
32
Q

What happens during the Pyruvate Dehydrogenous Complex?

A
  1. 2 Pyruvate molecules are decarboxylated via oxidative decarboxylation by PDC
    1. Converting Pyruvate to acetyl units
  2. 2 CO2 molecules are released
  3. NADH is produced
  4. Coenzyme activates the two acetyl units (they link together)
    1. Produces Acetyl-CoA
  5. Acetyl Co-A carries the acetyl units to the Kreb Cycle for further oxidation.
33
Q

What is the cofactor (prosthetic group) in PDC that produces acetyl COA + NADH per 1 pyruvate?

A

TPP

(Thiamine Pyrophosphate )

34
Q

Where does PDC occur?

A

mitochondrial matrix

35
Q

If pyruvate is radiolabeled on its number 1 carbon (most oxidized), where will it end up in the Kreb’s Cycle?

A

It will not end up in the Kreb’s Cycle because it will be removed during oxidative carboxylation.

36
Q

List the three major steps of the kreb’s cycle.

A
  1. Acetyl unit from acetyl coA is transferred to oxaloacetate to produce citric acid
  2. Citrate is further oxidized (oxidative decarboxylation) to
    1. Release CO2
    2. Produce NADH (this happens twice)
  3. OAA is regenerated so cycle can continue. In the process:
    1. NADH is produced
    2. FADH2 is produced
    3. GTP is produced
37
Q

What is the purpose of the production of GTP in the kreb’s cycle?

A

Plays the role normally reserved for ATP. Eventually transfers its high energy phosphate to ATP.

38
Q

What is produced per glucose molecule in the kreb’s cycle?

A
  1. 6 NADH
  2. 2 FADH2
  3. 2 GTP
39
Q

What are important things to know about the outer and inner mitochondrial membranes?

A
  1. Outer
    1. Smooth with large porin proteins that form “pores”
    2. This is what makes the intermembrane space continuous with the cytosol
  2. Inner
    1. Cristae
    2. Impermeable (to anything)
40
Q

What are three major events that happen in the ETC?

A
  1. Oxidize electron carriers
  2. Produce H2O
  3. Produce ATP
41
Q

Why do prokaryotes prokaryotes produce two more ATP than eukaryotes?

A

They complete their ETC in the cytosol via their membrane bound ATP Synthase. In contrast, eukaryotes have two shuttle the electron carriers produced in Glycolysis to the mitochondria, at the cost of some energy.

42
Q
A
43
Q

Oxidation of high energy electron carriers coupled with the phosphorylation of ADP to produce ATP.

A

Oxidative Phosphorylation

44
Q

List the two major types of electron carriers within the ETC.

A
  1. Cytochromes
    1. Has a heme group with a poryphorin ring (w/ iron in the middle)
  2. Small mobile electron carriers
45
Q

List the steps of the ETC.

A
  1. NADH is reduced to NAD+ by Coenzyme Q Reductase (NADH Dehydrogenous)
  2. Electrons are transferred to Coenzyme Q (Ubiquinone)
  3. Electrons are then transferred to Cytochrome C Reductase
  4. Electrons are transferred to Cytochrome C
  5. Electrons are transferred to Cytochrome C oxidase
  6. Electrons are used to reduce O2 (ultimately producing H2O)
46
Q

What happens during the transfer of electrons to each of the electron carrier proteins of the ETC.

A

Proton Gradient is Produced (driving force of production of ATP)

  1. Electron carriers pump protons from matrix to intermbrane space
  2. This produces a proton gradient (where pH inside of the matrix increases due to a decrease in proton concentratio)
  3. Protons work down their gradient by passng through ATP synthase, traveling back into the matrix
  4. This last step is the driving force for the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP
47
Q

Number of ATP produced per NADH.

A

2.5 ATP

48
Q

Number of ATP produced per FADH2.

A

1.5 ATP

49
Q

Which electro carrier does FADH2 give its electrons to?

A

Ubiquinone (coenzyme q)

(this is the reason for why FADH2 only produces 1.5 ATP)

50
Q

Wha is different about the NADH that is produced in glycolysis (in the cytosol)?

A

Ultimately, this NADH only produces 1.5 ATP.

It is transported to inner membrane of the the mitochondria via the glycerol phosphate shuttle. This NADH goes straight to Ubiquinone (Coenzyme Q) rather than Coenzyme Q Reductase.

51
Q

Number of ATP produced in Eukaryotes (per glucose).

A

30 ATP

52
Q

Number of ATP produced in Prokaryotes (per glucose).

A

32 ATP.

53
Q

This occurs when dietary sources of glucose are unavailable and when the liver has depleted its store of glycogen/glucose. Involves converting non-carbohydrate precursor molecules back to Glucose.

A

Gluconeogenisis

(primarily occurs in the liver)

54
Q

Describe the major events in Gluconeogensis.

A
  1. CO2 is added to Pyruvate to produce OAA
    1. Catalyzed by Pyruvate Carboxylase
    2. Driven by ATP Hydrolysis
  2. CO2 is removed from OAA via PEP carboxykinase, which produced PEP
    1. Major event (in addition to ATP hydrolysis, that drives gluconeogenesis)
  3. Fructose-1,6-BPase removes 1 phosphate from F-1,6-BP
  4. G6Pase removes phosphate from G6P

(Remember that acetyl-coA cannot take place in this process)

55
Q

What is needed for gluconeogensis.

A
  1. 6 High energy phosphate bonds (4 ATP and 2 GTP)
  2. Two electron carriers
56
Q

How is glycolysis and gluconeogenis regulated?

A

Reciprocal Control (to prevent futile cycling)

  1. Phosphofructokinase and F-1,6-BPase (allosterically regulated)
    1. When their are high AMP levels within the body, the first is activated and the latter is inhibited
  2. Fructose-2,6-BPase: cleaved or synthesized based on the concentrations of Glucagon and Insulin within the body
    1. This enzyme stimulates F-1,6-BP
    2. High inuslin levels
      1. Triggers formation of F-2,6-BPase
      2. F-2,6-BPase stimulates PFK while simultaneoulsy inhibiting F-1,6-BPase
    3. High Glucagon levels
      1. Triggers breakdown of F-2,6-BPase
      2. B/C F-2,6-BPase is no longer present, F-1,6-BPase is activated
57
Q

Steps for Glycogenesis.

A
  1. Glucose
  2. G6P
  3. G1P (catalyzyed by phosphoglucomutase)
  4. G1P + UDP ► UDP-Glucose + PPi (catalyzed by Glucose Pyrophosphorylase)
  5. Glycosyl unit is then transfered to growing glycogen polymer (catalyzed by glycogen Synthase)
58
Q

Steps for Glycogenolysis.

A
  1. Glycosyl unit is taken off of glycogen molecule and phosphorylated by glycogen phosphorylase
  2. G1P
  3. G6P (catalyzed by phosphoglucomutase)
  4. Glucose
59
Q

Glycogenesis and glycogenolysis occurs in both skeletal muscle (supply skeletal muscle with glucose during exercise) and the liver (maintain circulating blood glucose levels). Why is it that only the liver functions to maintain blood glucose levels?

A

Skeletal muscle lacks the enzyme G6Pase, and thus cannot dephosphorylate G6P. Thus, this form of glucose cannot enter the bloodstream due to the fact that it has a charged phosphate group.

60
Q

What three important components are made during Pentose Phosphate Pathway

A
  1. Ribose-5-Phosphate
  2. NADPH
  3. Glycolytic Intermediates
61
Q

Briefly describe the two major phases of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway as well as what each pase produces.

A
  1. Irreversible Oxidative Phase
    1. NADPH (powerful reducing agent and necessary for neutralizing reactive oxygen species)
    2. Ribose-5-Phosphate (important for nucleic acics)
  2. Reversible non-oxidative phase
    1. Glycolytic Intermediates (shunted back into glycolysis for cellular respiration)
62
Q

Describe the first few steps of the Pentose pathway and why this is important.

A
  1. G6PD is the enzyme that shunts G6P into PPP
    1. During this time NADP is converted to NADPH (NADPH is also created in the next step)
    2. This conversion leads to a negative feedback system for G6PD to inhibit this enzyme
      1. Any deficiencies in this enzyme can limit red blood cells ability to reduce reactive oxygen species, leading to cell death

Kaplan Biochemistry (5 decks)

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