Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Pathology > Cancer > Flashcards

Cancer Flashcards

1
Q

How does basal cell carcinoma spread?

A

It only spreads locally - never spreads to other parts of the body

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

What is the cure for basal cell carcinoma?

A

complete local excision
= cure

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

How are white blood cells involved in cancer?

A

white blood cells circulate round the body
and so will any tumour of white blood cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

How are lymph nodes involved in carcinoma?

A

carcinomas spread to the lymph nodes that drain the site of the carcinoma

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

How else can carcinomas spread?

A

Carcinomas can spread through the blood bone

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

What are the cancers that spread commonly through the bone?

A

Breast, prostate, lung, thyroid and kidney

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

What is the treatment plan for breast cancer?

A

Confirm diagnosis of breast cancer > Has it spread to the axilla? > Yes : Axillary clearance is needed No: Has it spread to the rest of the body? > Yes: Systemic Chemo is needed No: Surgery with or without axillary lymph node clearance

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

What could still be present if a tumour is completely excised?

A

Micro metastases could still be present

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

What is adjuvant therapy?

A

Extra treatment given after surgical excision e.g. radiotherapy to breast after lumpectomy

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

What is carcinogenesis?

A

The transformation of normal cells to neoplastic cells though permanent genetic alterations or mutations. A multistep process.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

What does carcinogenesis apply to?

A

Malignant neoplasms

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

What is oncogenesis?

A

Applies to malignant and benign tumours

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

What is a carcinogen?

A

Agents known or suspected to cause tumours
Carcinogenic = cancer causing
Oncogenic = tumour causing
Act on DNA i.e. are mutagenic

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

What are the classes of carcinogens?

A

Chemical
Viral
Ionising and non-ionising radiation
Hormones, parasites and mycotoxins
Miscellaneous

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

What are the features of chemical carcinogens?

A

No common structural features
Some act directly
Most require metabolic conversion from pro-carcinogens to ultimate carcinogens
Enzyme required may be present or confined to certain organs

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

What are the features of viral carcinogens?

A

Viruses cause approx. 10-15% of all cancers
Most oncogenic viral infections don’t result in cancer

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

What are some DNA viral carcinogens?

A

Virus: Associated cancers:
Human Herpes Virus | Kaposi Sarcoma
Epstein Barr virus | Burkitt lymphoma

Hepatitis B virus | Hepatocellular carcinoma
Human papillomavirus | Squamous cell carcinomas of head, neck, penis, cervix, anus
Merkle cell polyomavirus | Merkle cell carcinoma

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

What are some RNA viral carcinogens?

A

Virus: Associated Cancers:
Human T-lymphotrophic virus | Adult T- Cell leukaemia
Hepatitis C Virus | Hepatocellular carcinoma

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Radiant energy and cancer

A

UV Light:
Exposure to UVA or UVB increases risk of BCC, melanoma, Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC)
↑↑ Risk in xeroderma pigmentosum

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

What are some biological carcinogens?

A

Hormones
↑Oestrogen → ↑breast or mammary/endometrial cancer - reduce oestrogen by having kids
Anabolic steroids → hepatocellular carcinoma

Mycotoxins
Aflatoxin B1 → hepatocellular carcinoma

Parasites
Chlonorchis sinensis → cholangiocarcinoma
Shistosoma → bladder cancer

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

What are other miscellaneous carcinogens?

A

Asbestos, metals

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

What are some factors of the host that can affect cancer and carcinogens? RISK FACTORS

A

Ethnicity
Diet / Lifestyle
Constitutional factors - age, gender etc.
Premalignant lesions
Transplacental exposure

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

How can ethnicity affect carcinogens and cancer?

A

Increased oral cancer in South East Asia, due to reverse smoking and betal chewing (Paan)
Decreased risk of skin cancer for those with darker skin

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

How do constitutional factors affect cancer?

A

Inherited predisposition
familial polyposis coli (chr 5)
retinoblastoma (chr 13)

Age
incidence increases with age

Gender
breast cancer F:M = 200:1

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

How can lifestyle affect cancer?

A

Diet / Exercise
Excess alcohol use increases risk of cancers of the mouth, oesophagus, liver, colon and breast
Obesity increases risk of breast, oesophagus, colon and kidney cancer
Exercise reduces risk of colon and breast cancer

Sexual behaviour
Unprotected sex increases risk of HPV-related cancer (cervix, penis, oropharyngeal)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

How can premalignant conditions affect your chance of getting cancer?

A

Identifiable local abnormality associated with increased risk of malignancy at that site e.g.:

Colonic polyps
Cervical dysplasia (CIN)
Ulcerative colitis
Undescended testis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

What is leukaemia?

A

Cancer of the white blood cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

Leukaemia need what treatment?

A

Systemic chemotherapy - need chemotherapy in the whole body

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

Why do carcinomas spread to local lymph nodes?

A

Lymphatic vessels are very thin walled - easier for cancer cells to get in there and will drain into local lymph nodes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

Nearest lymph nodes to breast?

A

Axillary lymph nodes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

How do we confirm breast cancer diagnosis?

A

Needle core biopsy and send it to pathology - needs to be disorganised invasive carcinoma

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

CT can pick up things ….

A

that are 10mm or more in diameter - size limit though
Some tumours you cant see

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

To stop breast cancer after surgery you can give…

A

adjuvant anti-oestrogen therapy

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

What is cancer at its fundamental level?

A

genetic

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

Where does most of our cancer risk come from?

A

Environment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

What is a neoplasm?

A

A lesion resulting from the autonomous or relatively autonomous abnormal growth of cells which persists after the initiating stimulus has been removed - a new growth

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

What is asbestos linked to?

A

Mesothelioma

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

What is basement membrane made from?

A

Thick collagen

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

What does in situ in cancer mean?

A

The cancer is still within the duct - there is a big band of collagen around the duct

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

How do we treat in situ cancer?

A

Excise the cancer

41
Q

What is an invasive cancer/ carcinoma?

A

The cells have invaded the basement membrane

42
Q

What is microinvasive carcinoma?

A

It has invaded the basement membrane but not very far

43
Q

How do you treat microinvasive cancer in the cervix?

A

Treat it with excision

44
Q

What is metastasis?

A

The process whereby malignant tumours spread from their site of origin to form other tumours at distant sites

45
Q

What is proliferation?

A

Fast mitosis, when cell reproduces rapidly.

46
Q

Process of metastasis?

A

1.Detachment of tumour cells from their neighbours
2.Invasion of the surrounding connective tissue to reach conduits of metastasis
3.Intravasation into the lumen of vessels
4.Evasion of host defence mechanisms, such as NK cells
5.Adherence to endothelium at a remote location
6.Extravasation of the cells from the vessel lumen into the surrounding tissue
7.Tumour cells proliferate in the new environment
Also look at Invasion and metastasis lecture for a decent explanation

47
Q

What type of spread do carcinomas prefer?

A

Lymphatic spread

48
Q

What type of spread do sarcomas prefer?

A

Hematogenous spread

49
Q

Name of malignant tumour in striated muscle?

A

rhabdo myosarcoma

50
Q

Which cancer does not commonly metastasise to bone?

A

Liposarcoma

51
Q

What term describes a cancer that has not invaded the basement membrane?

A

Carcinoma in situ

52
Q

Name of benign tumours in glandular epithelium?

A

Adenoma

53
Q

What is colorectal screening?

A

Testing for blood in faeces - if positive then colonoscopy done - lots of polyps most of the time not cancer

54
Q

What is breast cancer screening?

A

Mammography

55
Q

What is cervical cancer screening?

A

Direct swab from cervix

56
Q

What do aromatic amines cause?

A

Bladder cancer

57
Q

What does aflatoxin cause?

A

Hepatocellular cancer

58
Q

What is a tumour?

A

Any abnormal swelling e.g
Neoplasm
Inflammation
Hypertrophy
Hyperplasia

59
Q

What is the structure of neoplastic cells?

A

-Derive from nucleated cells
-Usually monoclonal
-Growth pattern related to parent cell
Synthetic activity related to parent cell:
collagen, mucin, keratin, hormones etc

60
Q

What is the neoplasm stroma?

A

connective tissue framework
mechanical support
nutrition

61
Q

Why classify neoplasms?

A

To determine appropriate treatment

To provide prognostic information

62
Q

Methods of classification?

A

Behavioural: benign/malignant

Histogenetic: cell of origin

63
Q

Neoplasm may be classified as…?

A

benign
borderline
malignant

64
Q

Describe a benign neoplasm?

A

Localised, non-invasive
Slow growth rate
Low mitotic activity
Close resemblance to normal tissue
Circumscribed or encapsulated
e.g. fibroid

65
Q

What are features of a benign neoplasm?

A

Nuclear morphometry often normal
Necrosis rare
Ulceration rare
Growth on mucosal surfaces often exophytic

66
Q

Why should we worry about benign neoplasms?

A

Because they cause morbidity and mortality:
Pressure on adjacent structures
Obstruct flow
Production of hormones
Transformation to malignant neoplasm
Anxiety

67
Q

What is a description for malignant neoplasms?

A

Invasive
Metastases
Rapid growth rate
Variable resemblance to normal tissue
Poorly defined or irregular border

68
Q

What does a high grade neoplasm mean?

A

It doesnt look like normal tissue - is a bad prognosis

69
Q

What does a low grade neoplasm mean?

A

It doesnt look like normal tissue - good prognosis

70
Q

What does a low grade neoplasm mean?

A

It doesnt look like normal tissue - good prognosis

71
Q

What are the features of a malignant neoplasm?

A

Hyperchromatic nuclei – darker than normal
Pleomorphic nuclei – vary in size
Increased mitotic activity
Necrosis common – because It outgrows blood supply
Ulceration common
Growth on mucosal surfaces and skin often endophytic

72
Q

How do malignant neoplasms attack and cause cancer

A

Encroach upon and destroy surrounding tissue
Are poorly circumscribed – tongues of them to surrounding tissue
Have a ‘crab-like’ cut surface (Latin: cancer)
Metastasise

73
Q

Why should we worry about malignant neoplams?

A

They cause morbidity and mortality
Destruction of adjacent tissue
Metastases
Blood loss from ulcers
Obstruction of flow
Hormone production
Paraneoplastic effects – finger clubbing due to lung cancer
Anxiety and pain

74
Q

What does it mean if a neoplasm is subclinical?

A

Patient doesnt know we have it

75
Q

What is the structure of neoplastic cells?

A

Derive from nucleated cells
Usually monoclonal
Growth pattern related to parent cell
Synthetic activity related to parent cell:
collagen, mucin, keratin, hormones etc

76
Q

What is the general structure of a neoplasm?

A

Neoplastic cells + Stroma

77
Q

neoplastic cells derive from what?

A

Nucleated cells

78
Q

What is the function of the stroma in a neoplastic cell?

A

connective tissue framework
mechanical support
nutrition
Stroma supports neoplastic cell
Rich in fibroblast

79
Q

What is histogenesis?

A

the specific cell of origin of a tumour

80
Q

Neoplasms can arise from what?

A

Epithelial cells
Connective tissues
Lymphoid/haematopoietic organs

81
Q

What suffix do all neoplasms have?

A

“oma” at the end

82
Q

What is the prefix dependent on?

A

behavioural classification and cell type

83
Q

What is the nomenclature for a benign epithelial neoplasm of non-glandular, non-secretory epithelium

A

Papilloma - benign tumour of non-glandular, non-secretory epithelium
Prefix with cell type of origin e.g. squamous cell papilloma – almost always this

84
Q

What is the nomenclature of a benign tumour of glandular or secretory epithelium?

A

Adenoma - benign tumour of glandular or secretory epithelium
Prefix with cell type of origin e.g. colonic adenoma, thyroid adenoma.

85
Q

What is the nomenclature for malignant epithelial neoplasms?

A

Carcinoma - malignant tumour of epithelial cells
Prefixed by name of epithelial cell type e.g. urothelial Ca.

86
Q

What is a carcinoma of glandular epithelium called?

A

Adenocarcinoma

87
Q

What are some bening connective tissue neoplasms?

A

Named according to cell of origin, suffixed by ‘-oma’
Lipoma: adipocytes
Chondroma: cartilage
Osteoma: bone
Angioma: vascular – blood vessels
Rhabdomyoma: striated muscle
Leiomyoma: smooth muscle
Neuroma: nerves

88
Q

What are some malignant connective tissue neoplasms?

A

Liposarcoma adipose tissue
Rhabdomyosarcoma striated muscle
Leiomyosarcoma smooth muscle
Chondrosarcoma cartilage
Osteosarcoma bone
Angiosarcoma blood vessels

89
Q

What is the tumour called if the cell type is said to be unknown?

A

Anaplastic

90
Q

What are some ‘-omas’ that are not neoplasms?

A

e.g. granuloma, mycetoma- growth of fungus in lung, tuberculoma – mass of inflamed infected tissue due to TB

91
Q

Which malignant tumours arent carcinomas or sarcomas?

A

melanoma: malignant neoplasm of melanocytes
Mesothelioma: malignant neoplasm of mesothelial cells
lymphoma: malignant neoplasm of lymphoid cells

92
Q

Which tumours were named after the person that first discovered them?

A

Burkitt’s lymphoma
Ewing’s sarcoma – bone cancer
Grawitz tumour – kidney cancer
Kaposi’s sarcoma - herpes

93
Q

What is the behavioural classification of a benign tumour?

A

Does not invade the basement membrane
Exophytic (grows outwards)
Low mitotic activity
Circumscribed
Necrosis and ulceration rare

94
Q

What is the behavioural classification of a malignant tumour?

A

Invade the basement membrane
Endophytic (grows inwards)
High mitotic activity
Poorly Circumscribed
Necrosis and ulceration common

95
Q

What is histogenesis classification?

A

Based on the specific cell or origin of the tumour
Epithelial cells form carcinomas
Connective tissues form sarcomas
Lymphoid forms lymphomas or leukaemia

96
Q

What is histological grading?

A

Grade is based on the extent to which the tumour resembles its original histology
Grade 1 – Well differentiated (most closely resembles parent tissue)
Grade 2 – Moderately differentiated
Grade 3 – Poorly differentiated

97
Q

What are the routes of metastasis?

A

Bone metastasises from lung, breast, kidney, thyroid, prostate
Lymphatic metastasis is common (secondary tumours in lymph nodes)
Carcinomas prefer lymphatic spread
Sarcomas prefer haematogenous spread

98
Q

What is tumour staging?

A

Staging is the extent of a tumours spread
Determined by histopathological examination and clinical examination

Pathology (7 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions