Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Pathophysiology Midterm #2 > Cancer > Flashcards

Cancer Flashcards

1
Q

Half of all cancers diagnosed in Canada (4)

A
  • lung
  • prostate
  • colorectal
  • breast cancer
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

precancerous conditions

A
  • abnormal cells that may develop into cancer if not treated.
  • some have mild changes that may disappear without any treatment
  • some cell pass on genetic changes and gradually become more and more abnormal as they divide until they turn into cancer.
  • can take a long time
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

hyperplasia

A

means that abnormal cells are dividing and increasing in number faster than normal. The cells look normal under a microscope but there are more cells than normal. Some types of hyperplasia are precancerous, but most aren’t

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Atypia

A

means that cells are slightly abnormal (atypical). Sometimes may be caused by healing and inflammation but some types of atypia are precancerous

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Metaplasia

A

means that there has been a change to the types of cells that are normally found in this area of the body. The cells look normal, but they arent the type of cell that are normally found in that tissue or area. Most types of metaplasia arent precancerous but some are.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Dysplasia

A

means that cells are abnormal, there are more cells that normal, the cells are growing faster than normal and they aren’t arranged like normal cells. Dysplasia is a precancerous condition

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Carcinoma in situ

A

the most severe type of precancerous change. the cells are very abnormal but have not grown into nearby tissue. Carcinoma in situ is usually treated because it has a high risk of developing into cancer

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Intervention of precancerous changes:

A
  • checked regularly, so they can be treated quickly if cell changes become more severe or turn into cancer
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Biological Processes of Cancer

  1. defects in cellular proliferation
  2. defects in cellular differentiation
A
  1. normal cellular function vs cancer cell
    Stem cell theory
    2 proto-oncogenes. tumour suppressor genespncs
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Development of Cancer

  1. initiation
  2. promotion
  3. progression
A
  1. resulting from inherited mutation (genetic) or carcinogen - including chemical, radiation, bacterial/viral
  2. a) latency period b) why we do screening, may be before clinical manifestations
  3. a) growth, invasiveness, and metastasis - when cancer spreads to areas on the body (with tumour angiogenesis - tumour has its own blood supply, it has become vascularized) b) most common places for metastasis are lungs, bone, adrenal glands, liver, and brain
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Tumour Angiogenesis

A

the tumour has its own blood supply, it has become vascularized.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Most common places for metastasis:

A 
lungs
bone
adrenal glands
liver 
brain
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Non-cancerous or benign tumour

A
  • have cells that stay in one place and don’t spread
  • tend to have a regular and smooth shape and have a covering called a capsule
  • don’t usually come back after they are removed
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Cancerous or malignant tumours

A
  • can grow into nearby tissues and spread to other parts of the body. this happens when cancerous cells get into the blood or lymphatic system
  • can still come back after removal because cancer cells might have already spread from the tumour to other parts of the body
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Early detection in important because:

A
  • the cancer is usually smaller and easier to treat

- there is less chance that the cancer has spread

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Primary Prevention of Cancer

A
  • smoking cessation
  • avoiding second-hand smoke
  • maintaining ideal body weight
  • consuming at least 5 servings of fresh fruit and vegetables/day and at lease 26-35g of fibre daily
  • limiting intake of fats and both red and processed meats
  • avoiding excessive exposure to sunlight
  • avoiding excessive alcohol consumption (<1 drink/day - women. <2drink/day - men.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Early Detection and Screening

CAUTION

A

C-change in bowel or bladder habits
A - a sore that does not heal
U - unusual bleeding or discharge
T - thickening or lump in breast or elsewhere
I - indigestion or difficulty swallowing
O - obvious changes in warts or moles
N - nagging cough or hoarseness of voice

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Most common clinical manifestation of cancer? This clinical manifestation dramatically increases the chance of death

A

Cachexia - wasting syndrome. loss of weight. muscle atrophy.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

cancer screening recommendations

A
  • fecal occult blood test or fecal immunochemical test for those who dont have increased risk of colorectal cancer: Q2 years after 50 years old
  • Sigmoidoscopy/colonoscopy for positive FOB’s or positive familial history of colorectal cancer: Q5 years (50-75 years old)
  • Men: digital rectal exam Q1 year
  • Women: PAP smear and pelvic exam: Q1 year until 3 consecutive negatives then Q3 years. Mammogram Q2-3 years from 50-74
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

How is cancer diagnosed?

A
  • diagnosed by an expert who looked at cell or tissue under microscope.
  • tests done on cells, proteins, DNA, and RNA
  • health history, and physical exam
  • identification of risk factors
  • blood tests (tumor markers)
  • imaging/diagnostic tests (CT scans, ultrasounds, and x-rays, MRI, PET scan)
  • tissue samples (biopsy, aspiration, incisional (portion of the tumour) , excisional (removal of the tumour)
  • then the cancer is classified
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Prognostic Factors

  • favourable prognostic factors can have positive effect on outcome. Unfavourable prognostic factors can have negative effect on outcome.
  • determined by physician
A
  • type of cancer
  • subtype of cancer based on the type of cells or tissue
  • size of tumour
  • stage: how far and where the cancer has spread
  • grade: how fast the cancer cells are growing
  • age and gender
  • presence of other health problems
  • ability to do everyday tasks (functional status)
  • weight loss, and how much weight has been lost
  • ability to cope with treatment side effects
  • response to treatment
22
Q

Staging Cancer

A
  • staging describes or classifies a cancer based on how much cancer is in the body and where it is when first diagnosed. This is often called the extent of cancer.
  • staging often includes
    the size of the tumour. which parts of the organ have cancer. whether the cancer has spread (metastasized)
23
Q

Stages of cancer (0-4)

A 
0 - cancer in situ
1 - tumour limited to tissue of origin - localized tumour growth
2 - limited local spread
3 - extensive local and regional spread
4 - metastasis
24
Q

Grading Cancer

A
  • describes how the cancer cells look compared to normal, healthy cells
  • used to predict how the cancer will grow and to plan treatment
  • doctors use grades to predict how well the treatment will work and predict prognosis
25
Q

How is the grade of a cancer found?

A
  • pathologist looks at tissue samples from the tumour under a microscope. depends on several factors:
  • how different the cancer cells look from normal cells (differentiation) and size, shape, and arrangement of the cells
  • how fast the cells are growing and dividing. and whether there are areas of cell death in the tumour
26
Q

Solid tumour cancers - breast cancer, prostate cancer (forms lump)

A

given a grade between 1-4.

27
Q

Lower number means:

A

the cancer is a lower grade. different parts of a tumour can have cancer cells with different grades. usually graded as the highest grade seen anywhere in the tumour
- low grade: cells are abnormal but look like normal. arranged like normal cells. grow slowly. less likely to spread. well differentiated.

28
Q

High grade cancers;

A
  • cells that look very differently from normal cells and are arranged differently. they tend to grow more quickly and are more likely to spread.
29
Q

TNM table

- 3 parameters

A
  • standardization of the clinical staging of cancer. this classification system is used to determine the extend of the disease process using three parameters.
  • Tumour (T), Nodes (N), Metastasis (M)
30
Q

TNM: Tumour (T)

A
  • T0 - no evidence of primary tumour
  • Ts - evidence of carcinoma in situ
  • T1, T2, T3, ect. progressive increase in tumour size and involvement
  • Tx -unable to assess tumour
31
Q

TNM: Nodes (N)

A
  • N0 - no regional lymph node metastasis
  • N1, N2, N3 - increasing involvement of regional nodes
  • Nx - regional lymph nodes cannot be assessed clinically
32
Q

TMN: Metastasis (M)

A
  • M0- no evidence of distant metastasis
  • M1, M2, M3 - metastatic involvement
  • Mx - presence of metastasis cannot be assessed
33
Q

Treatments for cancer
(some patients will receive all the treatment modalities, some patients receive none)
- goal of therapy: cure vs control vs palliative

A
  • surgery
  • chemotherapy
  • radiation therapy
  • biological therapy/immunotherapy
34
Q

Surgery

A
  • diagnostic
  • preventative
  • cure
  • control
  • Palliation
    the removal of the primary cancerous tumour is the most common operation to try and cure or control cancer.
  • risks: almost always disrupts the structural integrity of the tumour. cells may seed elsewhere during surgery.
35
Q

Chemotherapy

A

a type of treatment that includes a medication or combination of medications to treat cancer. The goal of chemo is to stop or slow the growth of cancer cells. Chemo medications attack rapidly growing cancer cells, but they also affect healthy cells that grow rapidly.

36
Q

Delivery of Chemotherapy

A
  • IC, PO, IM, intracavitary (peritoneal), intrathecal (into sub-arachnoid space), intra-arterial (into artery supplying the tumour), intravesical (directly into the bladder) or SubQ
  • local vs systemic effects
  • delivered on a routine bases in cycle, from several months to years
  • effectiveness of chemotherapy determined with regular bloodwork, diagnostic testing, and symptoms of patient.
37
Q

Chemotherapy : Cure

A
  • Burkitt’s lymphoma
  • Wilms tumour
  • Neuroblastoma
  • Acute lyphocytic leukemia
  • Hodkin’s disease
  • Testicular cancer
38
Q

Chemotherapy: control

A
  • breast cancer
  • non-Hodgkins lymphoma
  • small cell carcinoma in the lungs
  • ovarian cancer
39
Q

Chemotherapy : palliation

A
  • relieve pain
  • relieve obstruction
  • improve the sense of well-being
40
Q

when is a patient prescribed chemotherapy

A
  • solid tumors

- hematological malignancies

41
Q

Why do you think a combination of chemo drugs used together often leads to a better patient outcome?

A
  • a synergistic effect between the drugs
  • different drugs target different stages of cell cycle
  • different toxic effects on the body
  • Nadir - the lowest level of peripheral blood count. comes from the effects of chemotherapy. Destroys RBCs - anemia and then nadir at its lowest.
42
Q

IV chemotherapy delivery - a port-a-cath

A
  • central IV line, meaning that the catheter is threaded into one of the large central veins in the chest, which empties into the heart. the vein which is used most often is the superior vena cava. This vein is preferred because it is very close to the skin and easy to find with ultrasound.
  • used for: blood draws, IV hydration, chemotherapy
  • helps reduce discomfort associated with frequent needle pokes
  • eliminates possibility of extravasation of toxic chemotherapy into subcutaneous tissue
  • risk of developing an IV catheter infection that could lead to sepsis and/or cardiac damage due to location of the port.
43
Q

Side Effects of Chemotherapy

A
  • most common chemotherapeutic agents cannot selectively distinguish between normal and cancerous cells therefore the adverse effects of chemo are caused by the destruction of normal cells especially those that proliferate rapidly like the cells from the bone marrow, GI lining, and integumentary system.
    GI: N&V, alterations in taste, weight loss, stomatitis, diarrhea
    Bone marrow: myelosuppression, neutropenia, anemia
    Integumentary: alopecia, skin rashes, hives, hyperpigmentation, photosensitivity, neurogenic sensations
44
Q

Radiation Therapy (XRT)

A
  • your cells normally grow and divide to form new cells. But cancer cells grow and divide faster than most normal cells. Radiation works by making small breaks in the DNA inside cells. nearby normal cells can also be affected by radiation, but most recover and go back to working the way they would.
  • cure vs control vs palliation
  • local vs systemic
  • external (most common) vs internal (implanted radiation seeds near the tumor) vs systemic (radioactive drugs)
  • general side effects (skin problems and fatigue), other side effects reflect the location of the XRT
45
Q

Biological Therapy/Immunotherapy

A
  • agents used to modify relationship between tumour and host-interleukins, interferons, monoclonal antibodies, and growth factors
  • they can have direct anti-tumour effects, restoreor help host immune system responses, and interfere for the cancer’s ability to metastasize or differentiate
46
Q

Interferons

A
  • type of cytokine. help C and Kaposi’s sarcoma
47
Q

Monoclonal Antibodies

A

immunoglobulins used to attack tumour cells. can be combined with chemo or other biological agents. given via IV infusion, reactions can occur (anaphylaxis). Ex. herceptin and avastin (prevents angiogenesis)

48
Q

Interleukins

A

induce activation of immune system. IL-2 is approved for use in renal cell carcinoma. AML and lymphoma. Can cause capillary leak syndrome ( a toxic effect)

49
Q

Growth Factors

A

stimulate production, maturation, and release of cells from the bone marrow, increasing functional ability of blood cells. Bone pain is common.

50
Q

Types of cancer

A
  • solid tumours
  • carcinoma vs sarcoma
  • blood cancers - leukemia and lymphomas and multiple myelomas
51
Q

Non-small cell lung CA

A
  • adenocarcinoma - glandular cells on the outer part of the lung, and mucous producing cells -
  • most common type of lung cancer - smoking is most common risk factor, though many others
  • S&S - respiratory symptoms: fatigue, weakness, chest pain, H/A, bone pain
  • diagnostics and Tx
  • complications include spinal cord compression, superior vena cava syndrome
52
Q

Multiple Myeloma

A
  • cancer of the plasma cells - considered a blood cancer
  • plasma usually grows in the bone marrow, but when they grow abnormally limiting the growth of healthy blood cells
  • S&S - fatigue, anemia, infections, hypercalcemia, kidney issues, bone fractures/weakness
  • can form tumors in the bones (plasmacytomas) - when multiple plasmacytomas are found, diagnosis of multiple myeloma
  • bone weakness, fracture and lesions, spinal cord compression
  • diagnostics and Tx

Pathophysiology Midterm #2 (9 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions