c3.1 (integration of body systems)

Question 1

10 characteristics of life

Answer 1

movement
responsiveness
growth
reproduction
respiration
digestion
absorption
circulation
assimilation
excretion

Question 2

systems of communication that plants use x1

Answer 2

hormonal signalling

Question 3

systems of communication that animals use x2

Answer 3

hormonal signalling
electrical signals

Question 4

hierarchy of systems in multicellular organisms x5 tiers

Answer 4

cell
tissue
organ
organ system
organism

Question 5

define tissue

Answer 5

groups of cells that work together to perform a function

Question 6

4 basic types of tissue in humans & function

Answer 6

connective tissue: supports other tissues and binds them together (bone, blood, and lymph tissues)

epithelial tissue: provides a covering (skin, the linings of the various passages inside the body) (alveolar epithelium is an example of a tissue where more than one cell type is present, because different adaptations are required for the overall function of the tissue)

muscle tissue: includes striated muscles that move the skeleton, and smooth muscle, such as the muscles that surround the stomach

nerve tissue: is made up of neurons and is used to carry electric impulses to and from various parts of the body

Question 7

3 basic types of organs in seeded plants & function

Answer 7

roots- multiple tissues working together to anchor the plant, absorb water and store nutrients

stems - multiple tissues working together to support the plant and transport nutrients

leaves - multiple tissues working together to perform photosynthesis

Question 8

human organ systems x11

Answer 8

nervous
respiratory
circulatory
digestive
excretory
muscular
skeletal
integumentary (nails skin hair)
immune
reproductive
endocrine (horomone related organs)

Question 9

what does “emergent properties” mean?

Answer 9

when a property (attribute, quality, or characteristic) emerges (becomes apparent, important, or prominent) when the parts interact as a wider whole

Question 10

example steps of property emergence at each level x5

Answer 10

life @ cellular level
contractions @ tissue level
pump blood @ organ level
transport blood @ organ system level
survive & reproduce @ organism level

Question 11

watch video(s) on all human organ systems

Answer 11

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Question 12

what are the two body systems responsible for integration?

Answer 12

nervous & endocrine

Question 13

main consequences of multicellularity & how it has been adapted to

Answer 13

nutrient delivery and waste processing must be done on a larger scale (cannot be cell specific)

transport vessels and aqueous fluids have evolved to serve this purpose.

Question 14

define system integration

Answer 14

the process by which different physiological systems in the body coordinate and work together to maintain homeostasis and/or perform a function

Question 15

4 things blood transports

Answer 15

nutrients
oxygen
water
waste (i.e. CO2)

Question 16

2 main types of cells in the brain & their functions

Answer 16

neurons, which transmit electrical impulses

glial cells, which act to support both the structure and function of neurons

Question 17

cerebellum location & 3 functions

Answer 17

back of the head (between brainstem and cerebrum

maintenance of balance & posture
coordination/timing of muscle movements
facilitates motor memory

Question 18

what movements does the spinal cord control?

Answer 18

unconscious processes, especially reflexes

Question 19

what is the spinal cord composed of (2 tissue types & structure)

Answer 19

white matter—axons of neurons

grey matter—synapses

Question 20

conscious vs unconscious
x3 components each

Answer 20

unconscious:
awake or asleep
involuntary
coordinated by brain & spinal cord

conscious:
awake
voluntary
coordinated by brain

Question 21

function of a neuron

Answer 21

a nerve cell that processes and transmits physical stimulus into an electrical signal called an action potential

Question 22

define signal transduction

Answer 22

process of transmitting information from outside a cell to inside a cell involving a chain of reactions

Question 23

6 components of a sensory neuron

Answer 23

dendrites
cell body
schwann cell
axon
axon terminal
myelin sheath

Question 24

dendrites function

Answer 24

primary site for receiving sensory information from the environment

Question 25

what are schwann cells?

Answer 25

glial cells that wrap around the axon and form the myelin sheath

Question 26

myelin sheath function

Answer 26

layers of lipid that acts as an insulator, allowing for faster signal transmission along the axon

Question 27

define saltatory conduction

Answer 27

process of signal transmission along the axon

Question 28

axon function

Answer 28

carries the electrical signal

Question 29

characteristic of an axon in sensory neurons

Answer 29

most sensory neurons have a single axon that branches into two parts, one extending to the periphery and the other to the spinal cord

Question 30

axon terminal function

Answer 30

releases neurotransmitters into the synapse to transmit signals to other neurons or cells

Question 31

sensory neurons are located in the skin and sense organs. sensory neurons have receptors activated by: x4 (stimuli & receptor & what it responds to)

Answer 31

light - photoreceptors respond to wavelengths of light chemicals - chemoreceptors respond to chemicals signals, such as taste, smell, blood pH and blood glucose concentration physical forces - mechanoreceptors respond to mechanical stimulation, such as touch, pressure, vibration, and sound temperature - thermoreceptors respond to changes in temperature

Question 32

the spinal cord receives sensory information about what? x4

Answer 32

pain temperature touch body position

Question 33

cerebrum location & main function (1 main & list a few others)

Answer 33

top area of the brain muscle function, speech, thought, emotions, reading, writing, learning, etc.

Question 34

primary motor cortex location & main function

Answer 34

strip in the cerebrum controls voluntary movement via motor neurons to skeletal muscles in the body

Question 35

motor neurons can form a two-neuron circuit. what is this & how does it work?

Answer 35

one motor neuron will originate in the cerebral cortex and travel down to the brainstem or spinal cord. there it forms a synapse with a second motor neuron which will extend to innervate muscles and glands throughout the body

Question 36

5 components of a motor neuron

Answer 36

cell body dendrites axon myelin sheath neuromuscular junction

Question 37

neuromuscular junction function

Answer 37

point of contact between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber, where the nerve transmits an electrical impulse to the muscle to cause it to contract

Question 38

motor neuron function

Answer 38

carry information away from the central nervous system towards a muscle or gland

Question 39

2 divisions of the nervous system & their components

Answer 39

central nervous system (CNS): the brain and spinal cord peripheral nervous system (PNS): the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord

Question 40

nerve structure

Answer 40

a nerve is a bundle of neurons and supportive tissues surrounded by a protective sheath

Question 41

3 examples of demyelinating diseases & definitions

Answer 41

charcot-marie-tooth disease (CMT): a disease that causes schwann cells to grow more slowly and reduces their number diabetic neuropathy: high blood glucose levels associated with diabetes damage schwann cells guillain-barre syndrome: an autoimmune disease that can be life-threatening if it affects the muscles used for breathing

Question 42

define epineurium

Answer 42

connective tissue sheath which encases the whole nerve

Question 43

define fascicles

Answer 43

bundles that neuron axons are further sub-grouped into

Question 44

define perineurium

Answer 44

connective tissue sheath that encases fascicles

Question 45

look at slide 71 of c3.1 for nerve micrographs

Answer 45

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Question 46

5 components involved in a reflex arc & what purpose they serve in the process

Answer 46

1. receptor: initial signal activates a sensory receptor 2. sensory neuron: carries the signal from the sensory receptor to the spinal cord 3. interneuron: receives and processes the information from the sensory neuron before activating a motor neuron 4. motor neuron: exits the spinal cord and stimulates an effector muscle or gland 5. effector muscle: causes the response of the reflex

Question 47

define circadian rhythms

Answer 47

the physiological and and behavioral changes of an organism over a roughly 24-hour cycle

Question 48

what do circadian rhythms dictate? what are they synchronized by?

Answer 48

multiple processes in the body, including alertness, sleepiness, appetite, and body temperature by light and darkness, however they will continue even if an organism is placed experimentally in continuous light or continuous darkness.

Question 49

what is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)? (in mammals)

Answer 49

a small region of the brain that acts as the pacemaker of the circadian rhythm of neuron firing frequency

Question 50

how does light/dark sensory input affect melatonin levels?

Answer 50

light/dark information reaches the suprachiasmatic nuclei from cells of the retina in the eyes with the onset of darkness, the SCN stimulates release of melatonin from the pineal gland, a small endocrine gland located in the center of the brain

Question 51

melatonin effects in humans x6

Answer 51

lower blood pressure lower urine production lower body temperature cause drowsiness/promote sleep regulation of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) enhance helper-T immune responses

Question 52

define signalling pathway

Answer 52

the process in which binding of an extracellular chemical to a receptor is translated into changes in the cell

Question 53

3 main steps of signalling pathway

Answer 53

1. reception: the process by which a cell detects a signal in the environment 2. transduction: the process of activating a change within the cell 3. response: the change that occurs in the cell as a result of the signal

Question 54

why are melatonin receptors on the surface of the target cells?

Answer 54

melatonin is hydrophilic and cannot pass through the hydrophobic center of the plasma membranes of cells

Question 55

what is the primary melatonin receptor in humans?

Answer 55

G-protein coupled receptor

Question 56

melatonin receptor activation occurs when: x5 steps

Answer 56

melatonin binds to the G-protein-coupled receptor, causing the receptor to change shape the shape changes causes GDP (guanosine diphosphate) to detaches from the alpha subunit of the G-protein GTP (guanosine triphosphate) binds in its place binding of GTP causes the G protein subunits dissociate into two parts: the GTP-bound alpha subunit and a beta-gamma dimer both parts remain anchored to the plasma membrane, but they are no longer bound to the GPCR, so they can now diffuse laterally to interact with other membrane proteins

Question 57

melatonin signal transduction begins when what occurs?

Answer 57

the activated alpha subunit of the G-protein inhibits an enzyme in the cell membrane called adenylate cyclase

Question 58

melatonin signal transduction occurs when: x2 steps

Answer 58

the inhibited adenylate cyclase can not catalyze the conversion of ATP in the cytoplasm to cyclic AMP (cAMP). intracellular levels of the second messenger cAMP decrease cyclic AMP (cAMP) increases cell activity. activation of the melatonin receptor will inhibit formation of cAMP, thereby reducing cell activity

Question 59

what does epinephrine/adrenaline bind to?

Answer 59

the adrenergic receptor (a type of G-protein-coupled receptor )

Question 60

what is the "fight or flight" response produced by?

Answer 60

the reaction produced by epinephrine

Question 61

epinephrine effects x4

Answer 61

causes liver and muscle cells to break down glycogen into glucose dilate bronchi and bronchioles due to relaxation of smooth muscles, widening the airway for increased air flow during ventilation speeds up firing of the sinoatrial node & strength of cardiac contraction, increasing the heart rate & volume of pumped blood, which moves more blood to the tissues faster dilates arterioles that carry blood to the skeletal muscles, widening so more blood flows to them. Vasodilation redirects blood flow to the areas of the body that are most crucial for dealing with the immediate threat, while inversely, Vasoconstriction redirects blood flow away from areas of the body that are not vital for dealing with the immediate threat

Question 62

how does epinephrine maximize the muscle’s ability to produce ATP & perform contractions?

Answer 62

skeletal muscles used during vigorous activity receive a greater volume of blood, with an increased supply of oxygen and glucose

Question 63

two distinct parts of the pituitary

Answer 63

anterior lobe and posterior lobe

Question 64

within the hypothalamus are cells that control different homeostasis variables in the body. these cells receive signal from sense organs and other parts of the brain about what? x3

Answer 64

blood glucose body temperature blood osmolarity

Question 65

how do the hypothalamus and pituitary work to trigger responses in target cells? x3 steps

Answer 65

1. hypothalamus receives signal 2. hypothalamus then communicates with the pituitary 3. pituitary sends hormones (signaling molecules) in the blood to target cells in other organs

Question 66

watch a video on osmoreceptors moitoring blood solute concentration

Answer 66

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Question 67

how does the hypothalamus initiate puberty?

Answer 67

secreting GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone), which in turn stimulates secretion of LH and FSH from the pituitary These hormones cause secretion of reproductive hormones from testes and ovaries, leading to changes associated with puberty

Question 68

what is the sinoatrial valve?

Answer 68

the heart's built-in pacemaker

Question 69

define stroke volume

Answer 69

the amount of blood ejected from the ventricle with each cardiac cycle

Question 70

what increases stroke volume in the body?

Answer 70

active cells in the body produce more CO2 as a result of increased respiration. heart then needs to pump faster to clear it and pump more blood with each ventricular contraction

Question 71

when are baroreceptors activated?

Answer 71

when heart rate and stroke volume increase

Question 72

what are baroreceptors? where are they located?

Answer 72

mechanoreceptors that regulate heart rate by sensing blood pressure changes and sending signals to the brain one location for baroreceptors is the aorta

Question 73

when blood pressure increases, baroreceptors do what?

Answer 73

increase the frequency of signalling to the medulla

Question 74

how is heart rate/contraction/stroke volume decreased?

Answer 74

the medulla signals to the sinoatrial (SA) node to decrease heart rate, force of contraction, and stroke volume

Question 75

what role do chemoreceptors play in affecting heart rate?

Answer 75

detects changes in O2, CO2, and pH

Question 76

where are chemoreceptors (used for influencing heart rate) found in

Answer 76

found in tissue near where baroreceptors are located, but are not in the blood vessels themselves

Question 77

at rest, respiratory centers in the medulla maintain respiration rate by doing what?

Answer 77

sending consistent signals to the diaphragm and intercostal muscles to maintain steady breathing

Question 78

purpose of chemoreceptors located in the medulla

Answer 78

monitor blood passing through the medulla (allow feedback control of ventilation rate during and after exercise)

Question 79

typical blood pH (range of .1)

Answer 79

7.35 to 7.45

Question 80

what causes change in pH in blood?

Answer 80

exercise leads to drop in pH by increasing hydrogen ions

Question 81

how does the body respond to a change in blood pH?

Answer 81

chemoreceptors sense increase in H+ and send action potentials at a higher rate to increase clearing of CO2

Question 82

decreasing pressure in lungs (expiration) results in what?

Answer 82

the diaphragm and intercostals relax, causing the thorax and lungs to recoil

Question 83

how does the kidney facilitate pH balance?

Answer 83

maintaining H+ and bicarbonate concentrations when blood is acidic, kidneys secrete more H+ in urine and reabsorbs bicarbonate in urine (binds to protons) to produce H2CO3 (increasing pH)

Question 84

define peristalsis

Answer 84

a series of wave-like muscle contractions that move food and waste through the digestive tract

Question 85

what is peristalsis controlled by? x2 systems

Answer 85

central nervous system (CNS) & enteric nervous system (ENS)

Question 86

what is the enteric nervous system (ENS)?

Answer 86

a network of nerves comprised of sensory, motor, and relay neurons (a type of interneuron with a long axon) in the digestive tract that controls digestion

Question 87

what initiates the peristaltic reflex? what are the 5 steps that happen after initiation?

Answer 87

food masses 1. food stretches tube, which stimulates stretch receptors in ENS 2. stretch receptors stimulate relay neurons 3. relay neurons stimulate motor neurons 4. motor neurons release excitatory neurotransmitter, causing smooth muscle above bolus contracts 5. motor neurons release inhibitory neurotransmitter, causing smooth muscle below bolus relaxes

Question 88

tropic responses in plants (& definitions) x6 (watch videos on each one after) (if cannot find, look at diagrams)

Answer 88

Phototropism: Plants grow towards light sources.  Gravitropism: Plants grow in response to gravity. Stems grow away from the center of gravity, while roots grow towards it.  Hydrotropism: Plants grow towards or away from water. Roots grow towards water sources, which helps protect plants from drought and over-saturation.   Thigmotropism: Plants grow in response to mechanical stimulation, such as touch.  Chemotropism: Plants grow in response to specific substances.  Traumatotropism: Plants grow in response to wound lesions

Question 89

watch this https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=oembed&v=pCFstSMvAMI

Answer 89

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Question 90

what are phytohormones? what do they control?

Answer 90

chemicals that regulate plant growth and development control processes like cell division, elongation, and response to environmental stimuli

Question 91

examples of key phytohormones x5

Answer 91

auxins cytokinins gibberellins ethylene abscisic acid

Question 92

look at slide 138 for phytohormone control c3.1

Answer 92

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Question 93

what does auxin do? where specifically is it found?

Answer 93

moves through plant tissues to regulate growth. found in tips of roots and shoots (root meristem, apical meristem)

Question 94

what do auxin efflux carriers do?

Answer 94

concentrate auxin on one side of cells, creating a directional flow of the hormone

Question 95

how does auxin promote cell growth? x4 steps

Answer 95

auxin binds to proton pumps this acidifies the cell wall through the secretion of H+ into the apoplast increase in [H+] activates a protein called expansin which loosens cellulose allowing the wall to expand and cells to elongate turgor pressure from inside the cell provides force that pushes cellulose fibers, then H-bonds reform

Question 96

how does cytokinin promote cell development for division? x2

Answer 96

controls the development of shoots, roots, flowers, and vascular bundles increases the number of seeds produced per pod or unit area

Question 97

where is auxin produced? how is it transported?

Answer 97

in the shoot tips transported shoot to root via phloem

Question 98

where is cytokinin produced? how is it transported?

Answer 98

in the root tips transported root to shoot via xylem

Question 99

explain the positive feedback of fruit ripening via ethylene how is this beneficial to the fruit plant?

Answer 99

ethylene triggers the ripening of fruit, and as fruit ripens, it produces more ethylene, speeding up the process ensures fruit ripening is rapid and synchronized, increasing the likelihood of successful seed dispersal