C3 World Sociology (AO2/AO3 & exam skills) Flashcards
The following flash cards will help improve your skills of analysis/evaluation & strengthen your memory through spaced retrieval practice and a technique called elaborative interrogation.
WHAT IS ELABORATIVE INTERROGATION?
Elaborative Interrogation involves the learner looking for explanations for facts. A sizable body of evidence suggests that prompting students to answer ‘WHY’ & ‘HOW’ questions facilitates learning.
To help you do this think as hard as possible about the E.I. questions at the bottom of each answer in the following flash cards. What we think hard about is what we remember
►‘Memory is the residue of thought’ (Dan Willingham)
What are the main sociological explanations of inequality in the developing world?
Inequality = the uneven distribution of resources such as money and power and how opportunities related to education, employment and health are also skewed. A hotly disputed debate is whether the origins of these inequalities in the developing world are mostly the result of internal or external factors.
- Modernisation Theory argues that inequalities are primarily caused by internal barriers within developing countries (either economic or cultural, e.g. aspects of traditional culture).
- Neoliberalism argues that that corruption and economic mismanagement are the key factors that cause many poor countries to lag behind the richer industrialised nations. They say Aid can make these things even worse
- The Marxist perspectives of Dependency Theory and World Systems Theory argue that inequalities have been created by exploitation of the poor world by the rich (through both colonialism and neo-colonialism)
- Counter-Industrial Theories remind us that we shouldn’t measure inequality in solely economic terms. We also need to focus more closely on environmental and social inequalities
E.I. WHY is a key dividing line the issue of whether the source of inequalities in the developing world is internal or external? WHY is it necessary to focus more closely on environmental & social inequalities?
Why do some sociologists argue that economic measures, (e.g. GDP), do not give a satisfactory picture of development?
- GDP does not include work that is not performed for money
- GDP does not consider inequality within a country
- GDP does not consider whether output is useful or destructive
- Human measures of development (health, education etc.) also need to be used
- Economic growth may not be environmentally sustainable
E.I. - WHAT kinds of work are not measured by GDP? WHY might GDP per capita say little about how most people live? WHY might economic growth sometimes be harmful? https://youtu.be/gGMvI3BkhPg?t=3m40s
What are some of the strengths of Modernisation Theory?
- It offers practical solutions to poverty and global inequality
- The success of the Marshall plan supports the view that aid can promote development
- It highlights the importance of cultural barriers to development
E.I. - WHY are these points considered to be strengths of this theory? HOW does this theory offer practical solutions to poverty and inequality? HOW is the success of the Marshall Plan linked to Modernisation theory?
What are some of the weaknesses and criticisms of Modernisation Theory?
- It is an ethnocentric approach
- It overemphasises the role of internal factors in explaining global inequalities
- It fails to see that some aid may do more harm than good
- It is not an environmentally sustainable approach
E.I. - WHY are the above points weaknesses of this theory? HOW is this theory ethnocentric? WHY might it be wrong to focus on internal barriers? WHY might some aid be harmful? HOW is this perspective unsustainable?
What are some of the strengths of Neo-Liberalism?
- It highlights the negative impact of corruption
- It has raised important questions about the usefulness of development aid
- Free trade may boost economic development by encouraging competition & specialisation
E.I. - WHY are these points considered to be strengths of this theory? WHY are Neo-Liberals critical of development aid? WHY does free trade encourage competition/specialisation & HOW might these promote economic growth? https://youtu.be/ewlKH5WXb_A?t=9m24s
What are some of the weaknesses and criticisms of Neo-Liberalism?
- It fails to consider the advantages of economic protectionism (e.g. the ‘infant industry argument’)
- Neo-Liberal policies like SAPs have failed to promote economic growth
- Rich countries that promote Neo-Liberalism are hypocrites (‘do as I say, not as I did’)
- Deregulating the economy may lead to exploitation of workers and the environment
- Ignores external factors
EI - WHY are the points above criticisms of Neo-Liberalism? WHY might economic protectionism be good for developing countries? WHY might deregulation lead to exploitation?
What are some of the strengths of Dependency Theory?
- It highlights the role of external factors (e.g. colonialism & neo-colonialism) in creating inequality and under-development
- It avoids blaming the victims of poverty for their situation
- It sees the world as an interonnected system in which nations are not sealed units (‘development and under-development are two sides of the same coin’)
EI - WHY are the points above considered to be strengths of this theory? WHY might development and under-devlopment be considered to be two sides of the same coin?
What are some of the weaknesses and criticisms of Dependency Theory?
- It has a polarised view of the world that doesn’t take into account middle income countries
- It over-generalises about the negative effects of colonialism
- It doesn’t fully address the internal barriers to development
- It doesn’t offer practical solutions
EI - WHY are the points above considered to be weaknesses of this theory? WHY is the world not as polarised as this theory suggests? HOW might colonialism have benefited some countries?
How does World Systems Theory improve upon Dependency Theory?
- It takes into account middle income or ‘semi-periphery’ countries
- It is a more dynamic model of global inequality
EI - WHY is it important to take into account semi-periphery countries? HOW is this theory a dynamic model of global inequality?
What are some of the strengthsofCounter-Industrial theories?
- They provide a timely reminder that development can never be measured in solely economic terms
- They emphasise the importance of sustainable development
- Ideas such as ‘Intermediate technologies’ and ‘Micro-credit’ offer practical solutions and empower people in developing countries
E.I. - WHY are the points above considered to be the main strengths of these perespectives? WHY is ‘sustainable’ development important? HOW do intermediate technologies and micro-credit help the poor?
What are some of the weaknesses and criticismsofCounter-Industrial Theories?
- Inititaives such as micro-credit and intermediate technologies may have limited impact and only bring about piecemeal improvements
- Critics argue that these perspectives want to deny people in the developing world the improved standards of living that follow industrialisation
EI - WHY might the ‘people centred’ initiatives above have a limited impact? WHY might people in the developing world welcome industrialisation?
What are some of the main arguments that support the view that aid cannot solve the problems of the developing world?
- It props up corrupt governments
- It make people reliant on handouts, removing the incentive to be entrepreneurial
- It is often leads to economic mismanagement
- Tied aid many benefit rich countries more than poorer ones
- Most aid doesn’t go to the poorest countries
E.I. - WHY might aid support corrupt governments? WHY might aid remove the incentive to be entrepreneurial? HOW might aid lead to economic mismanagement? HOW might tied aid benefit the rich donor countries? WHY isn’t most aid targeted at poor countries? WHAT examples/evidence support these arguments? https://youtu.be/dF5UPFCLueo?t=8m16s
What are some of the main arguments against the view that aid cannot solve the problems of the developing world?
- Poor countries are caught in a poverty trap which makes it hard for them to be productive without aid to deal with their problems
- Aid targeted at health problems has had a positive impact. Vaccinations halved deaths from measles between 1999 & 2005
- People-centred initiatives, e.g. aid invested in intermediate technologies and micro-credit, have helped poor people help themselves
E.I. - HOW might an initial injection of aid help the least developed countries tackle their endemic problems? WHY has aid been particulalry successful in relation to health problems? HOW do people centred initiatives help people to help themselves? https://youtu.be/CNWzYy186W8?t=1m23s
Why do Banerjee & Duflo argue that you cannot give a sweeping answer to the question ‘Does Aid work?’
They think that is more helpful to think in terms of concrete problems, which can have specific answers, rather than foreign aid in general. Watch this TED talk by Duflo to help you understand their argument:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0zvrGiPkVcs
►When you answer questions like ‘Assess the view that aid cannot solve the problems of the developing world’ you can use the work of Banjeree & Duflo to challenge the premise of the question (they think the view stated in the question is too general. Some aid works, some doesn’t)
What are the most effective ways of revising subject knowledge?
Use the ANSWER method below:
- Ask ‘How’‘ and ‘Why’ questions when revising and try to connect ideas (this method is called ‘elaboration’)
- No cramming. Distribute your revision over time and used a spaced system of repetition
- Switch topics regularly when revising (this is called ‘interleaving’ and it will help you to identify connections between different topics)
- Words and visuals. Combine words and visual representations to create two ways of remembering key ideas (this is called ‘dual coding’)
- Examples. Your brain will find it easier to recall abstract ideas if you can relate concepts and theories to concrete examples
- Recall what you know. Scientific evidence suggests that ‘retrieval practice’ is much more effective than rereading and highlighting. Test yourself as much as possible and complete as many practice exam questions as you can. Ask your teacher for feedback on your practice
WATCH THE FOLLOWING VIDEO FOR MORE INFORMATION ON THESE TECHNIQUES: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CPxSzxylRCI
What are the arguments in favour of free trade?
- Increased competition – encourages specialisation and innovation (Ricardo’s theory of Comparative Advantage)
- Increase exports – bigger markets for successful companies (which increases employment)
- More consumer choice
E.I. - HOW is point no.1 linked to the theory of Comparative Advantage? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UQkkhZfIcjk&index=19&list=PLZt9bXMy6CcDrjexk8-ARO9weOAytLfisWHY might the removal of trade barriers encourage exports? WHY might free trade benefit consumers?
Why might some developing countries want to use economic protectionism?
- Protect Jobs
- Nurture ‘infant industries’
- Protect ‘sunset industries’
- Combat unfair competition & dumpinng
E.I. - WHY might developing countries want to protect ‘infant’ and ‘sunset industries’? WHY might rich countries export a product to another country at a price either below the price charged in its home market or below its cost of production?
What are the arguments in support of the view that inequalities in the developing world are caused by ethnocentrism?
Ethnocentrism = The belief that one’s own culture is the most important one. E.g. in relation to global development it is often assumed that poorer countries should become more like ‘us’ in the west (i.e. based on capitalism, industrialisation, consumerism etc.).
- The western capitalist development advocated by Modernisation Theory & Neoliberalism may widen the gap between the rich and the poor
- Western culture can be seen as degrading or even as destroying local cultures
- The education systems of developing countries are often based on western knowledge at the expense of indigenous knowledge. This may lead to further inequality
E.I. - WHY might following the western capitalist model of development lead to a widening gap between the rich and poor? HOW might the concept of ‘cultural imperialism’ be linked to points 2 and 3?
What are the arguments against the view that inequalities in the developing world are caused by ethnocentrism?
Ethnocentrism = The belief that one’s own culture is the most important one. E.g. in relation to global development it is often assumed that poorer countries should become more like ‘us’ in the west (i.e. based on capitalism, industrialisation, consumerism etc.).
- Modernisation Theory argues that it is traditional culture that causes inequality in the developing world rather than western values
- Western standards of economic growth and consumption remain the aspirations of many in the developing world
- The introduction of western ideas/knowledge have helped tackle health inequalities in the developing world
- The spread of liberal democracy - a western idea, has helped achieve more political equality in the developing world
E.I. WHY might some aspects of traditional culture create deep rooted gender inequaliies? HOW have Western medical advances helped to tackle inequalities in the developing world?
Which World Sociology theories should I focus on for the following exam question?
Evaluate the usefulness of Marxist explanations for inequalities in the developing world
- Dependency Theory
- World Systems Theory
►You would need to evaluate the theories above and explain how they are linked to Marxism (i.e. They argue that the exploitative class relations within capitalist economies are mirrored in the exploitative relationships between rich & poor countries)
The following two paragraphs could be used to introduce a World Sociology essay on Marxism before moving onto an analysis of Dependency Theory/World Systems Theory:
Marxism has always acknowledged a global context in its analysis. Karl Marx, writing in the 19th C saw capitalism as being a global phenomenon because capitalism is always seeking new markets for products and because raw materials have to be sourced from around the world
Marxists say that global capitalism arose out of processes of colonialism and the exploitation of the resources of areas that are now mostly developing countries. Thus the two class model of society based on ownership and the exploited which as developed by Marx could be easily applied to global society. This type of Marxist analysis of global inequality forms the basis of Dependency Theory and (in an amended form) World Systems Theory
What are some of the main arguments/evidence that support the view that Trans National Corporations (TNCs) contribute towards inequalities in the developing world?
TNCs = Corporations that have globalized their operations (i.e. they produce and sell around the world)
- Exploitation of workers: conditions & pay may be low (particularly within ‘Export Processing Zones’)
- Exploitation of the environment and creating pollution with negative consequences for local people (e.g. Coca Cola polluting water supplies in India)
- Selling harmful goods to poor people in the developing world regardless of consequences (e.g. Nestle’s selling of powdered baby food)
- Jobs created, especially the better paid ones, may go to foreign workers from the developed world rather than to local people
- Tax avoidance means that governments in the developing world are unable to use tax revenues to tackle inequalities
E.I. - WHY might the exploitation of workers be a feature of Export Processing Zones? WHY might TNCs sell harmful goods to the developing world? WHY is it difficult to tax the profits of TNCs? WHY are TNCs criticised by Dependency Theory & Counter-Industrial Theories?
What are some of the main arguments/evidence against the view that Trans National Corporations (TNCs) contribute towards inequalities in the developing world?
TNCs = Corporations that have globalized their operations (i.e. they produce and sell around the world)
- TNCs bring in investment in terms of money, resources, technology and expertise
- TNCs create employment (e.g. in Vietnam this has helped to dramatically reduce the poverty rate)
- The jobs & training often provide opportunities for women prompting greater gender equality
- TNCs bring modern values, which may help development; e.g. ideas about gender equality
- TNCs need and will pay for infrastructure from which local people may also benefit
E.I. - WHY might TNCs help tackle gender inequalities in the developing world? WHY might TNCs pay for infrastructure in developing countries? WHY are TNCs viewed positively by Modernisation Theory & Neoliberalism?
How do I structure longer essay questions that ask me to evaluate a claim?
These are questions that typically ask you to ‘evaluate/assess a view’, or start with the command ‘to what extent’
What are some of the arguments in favour of the view that education is the key to development?
- Education can lead to more people getting skills which can lead them into higher paid better work. E.g. When the Indonesian government started to use oil revenues to build schools, (1974-8, the INPRES programme), wages grew fastest in regions that received more schools
- Modernisation Theorists argue that the western model of education can transmit values which are useful to develop a country, e.g. individualism, achievement and competition
- Counter-Industrial Theorists argue that education, provided it is sensitive to the local context, can empower poor people
- Education can empower women and also lead to a lower fertility rate and reduced child & infant mortality rates
E.I. - WHY might education lead to economic development? WHY do Modernisation Theorists and Counter Industrial Theorists have different views on the purpose of education? WHY might education improve other aspects of human development (e.g. Health)?
What are some of the arguments against the view that education is the key to development?
- Neoliberals argue that top down investment in education does not cause economic development. Rich countries have more education because they can afford it and because people see the worth of it if the economy is growing
- Education is about inculcating skills but it is also about inculcating a world view. This can create problems if minority groups fear that there is a hidden agenda of cultural assimilation
- The quality of education is often very poor and parents may not feel that it is worth the opportunity cost to send their children to school
- Dependency Theorists argue that the ‘hidden curriculum’ of education is often about social control of the poor
E.I. - WHY might the claim that education leads to economic development be confusing causation with correlation? WHY might minority groups be suspicious of national education systems? WHY is the quality of education often poor? WHY might education be about social control rather than empowerment?
How do I structure longer essay questions that ask me to evaluate a theory?
What are the main sociological explanations of gender inequality in the developing world?
- Modernisation Theory (broadly similar to Liberal Feminism) blames the traditional culture within developing countries for women’s inequality
- Dependency Theorists argue that colonial powers and missionaries imposed traditional western values about males and females, e.g. a women’s place is in the home
- Dependency Theorists argue that colonialism brought men into the cash economy of growing cash crops etc. whilst women were side lined into the production of subsistence food.
- Dependency Theory and Marxist-Feminists argue that the global spread of capitalism requires the exploitation of women (e.g. it is mainly young women who are employed in Export Processing Zones)
- The focus for radical feminists is the way in which family relationships and male violence are the key source of oppression for women
E.I. - WHY might the source of gender inequalities be traditional culture? WHY might women be more likely to put up with lower wages and worse conditions than their male counterparts? WHY do Radical Feminists argue that the ‘personal is political’?
What are the arguments in favour of the view that developing countries should adopt western style healthcare and practices?
(This is the view that developing nations should drop traditional medicines, opt for a centralised healthcare system based on hospitals and mass immunisation)
- Modernisation Theorists would argue that this can help move nations away from ineffective and unscientific traditional health care practices
- Western expertise and technology can be brought into developing countries
- A key strength of this approach is its potential scale of impact – mass vaccination programmes, for example have had a particularly potent effect
E.I. - WHY might some indigenous people be distrustful of western health care practices? WHY might the use of aid be essential in establishing these systems and technology?
What are some of the arguments against the view that developing countries should adopt western style healthcare and practices?
(This is the view that developing nations should drop traditional medicines, opt for a centralised healthcare system based on hospitals and mass immunisation)
- Western style hospitals may be too costly for developing countries. There are likely to be shortages of medicines and reliable equipment
- Dependency Theorists note that TNCs (‘Big Pharma’) are reluctant to sell medicine at affordable prices or to let them manufacture their own generic versions
- There is poor funding by western TNCs into medicines and treatments that would improve health in developing countries
- There is no financial incentive for doctors to work in poor rural areas – or indeed in developing countries at all, hence the ‘brain drain’ of doctors & nurses
- Adopting a Western style system based on highly trained staff, technology and hospitals in cities can leave those in rural areas with little access to healthcare
E.I. - WHY might the imposition of SAPs on developing countries exacerbate these problems? WHY is there poor funding by TNCs into medicines that would help developing countries? WHY might community based primary healthcare be a better alternative?
How do I structure longer essay questions that ask me to evaluate sociological explanations?
What are some of the arguments and evidence that would support the view that globalisation has improved the lives of people in the developing world?
Globalisation = the growing interconnectedness and integration of individuals, nations and regions of the world. This leads to an increased flow of trade, people, investment, technology, culture and ideas among countries
- Globalisation has led to new economic relationships between countries which has created new jobs in the developing world. E.g. TNC’s are moving much of their production activities to developing countries
- Neoliberals argue that global capitalism has lifted living standards around the world and this has had a positive impact on human development (e.g. life expectancy). People are wealthier and healthier than there were before
- According to Ricardo international trade can benefit all countries provided they specialise in goods and services where they have a comparative advantage (i.e. those that have the lowest opportunity cost)
- Cultural globalisation involves the spread of western values which Modernisation theorists argue can help poorer countries catch up with the developed world
E.I. WHY is globalisation linked to strong economic development in China and India? WHY should countries specialise in goods and services where they have a comparative advantage? WHY might the spread of western values help poorer countries?
https://youtu.be/2snqfnp7dh8?t=5m41s
What are some of the arguments and evidence against the view that globalisation has improved the lives of people in the developing world?
Globalisation = the growing interconnectedness and integration of individuals, nations and regions of the world. This leads to an increased flow of trade, people, investment, technology, culture and ideas among countries
- Dependency Theorists argue that the jobs created by economic globalisation are very poorly paid and often rely on the super-exploitation of female and child labour (e.g. Export Processing Zones)
- Economic globalisation widens the gap between rich and poor – even if some developing countries benefit, the rich world, or at least the majority there, benefit even more and the poorest are excluded. Oxfam claim that the world’s richest 1% own as much wealth as the rest of the world combined.
- Counter-industrial theorists argue that global capitalism in its present form is environmentally unsustainable and that developing countries will experience the worst effects of climate change
- Cultural globalisation is in reality a form a form of cultural imperialism – i.e. it is seen as destroying local cultures through a process of McDonaldisation
E.I. - WHY might globalisation exacerbate inequalities both between and within countries? WHY might globalisation lead to more environmental problems? WHY might globalisation be viewed as a form of cultural imperalism?
What are some of the arguments & evidence that support the view that urbanisation can help solve the problems of the developing world?
Urbanisation = The process of migration from rural areas to cities
- Modernisation theorists would argue that urbanisation needs to occur because companies will invest in cities where there are more people so they can have a big labour force, if more people move there then more companies can invest, GDP rises and a country develops
- Modernisation theorists argue that urbanisation can help the young break free of the very traditional norms and values that rural life is often based upon
- Large amounts of people moving to the cities will force the development of essential services and infrastructure to care for them
- It is more efficient to provide health and education to a concentrated urban population rather than a sparsely populated rural one
E.I. - WHY can essential services be delivered more efficiently in cities? WHY might modernisation theory allow developing countries to overcome their cultural barriers?
What are some of the arguments & evidence against the view that urbanisation can help solve the problems of the developing world?
Urbanisation = The process of migration from rural areas to cities
- Urbanisation has negative effects on family structures and values. Young people would be the ones more likely to move to cities for work, they would leave their rural families behind who largely survive on farming. The farms would suffer from the youths moving away and the family structures would become looser
- In many developing cities the economy is not growing fast enough to provide employment opportunities to the population. Many people are unemployed and under-employed and this can be a cause of crime and other urban problems
- Urbanisation in the developing world is rushed and rapid, infrastructure cannot be built at the same time as people are coming in. This results in slums, poor health conditions from hospitals not being able to cope, education services failing and sanitation breaking down
- Environmentalists would argue that air pollution and other environmental problems are caused by rapid urbanisation in the developing world
E.I. - WHY are environmental problems caused by rapid urbanisation? WHY does urbanisation not necessrily cause economic growth?
What are some of the arguments and evidence that support the view that population growth is the main cause of problems in the developing world?
- Malthusians believe that global population growth surpasses food supply because food supply goes up arithmetically (1,2,3,4…) whereas population doubles and grows geometrically (1,2,4,8…)
- Malthusians argue we need to curb population growth otherwise it will lead to famines and wars over food (‘malthusian checks’)
- Neo-Malthusians believe that population growth is the main cause of poverty. It leads to economic issues, uncontrollable urbanisation and wars/environmental damage. On current trends the population of the poorest region of the world Sub-Saharan Africa may increase from 1 billion to 4 billion people by the end of the century
- For example, we can see by looking at urbanisation that infrastructure cannot support so many people. It will lead to shanty towns, lack of education/healthcare/sanitation to support so many people and developing nations will regress into under-development
E.I. WHY is population growing fastest in the least developed countries? WHY does population increase geometrically?
What are some of the arguments and evidence against the view that population growth is the main cause of problems in the developing world?
- It is not population getting out of hand that is going to lead to famines and war over food, because as Boserup has shown agricultural advances will deal with population growth
- The real issue is environmental damage and over use of land that causes famines and food crisis. Food needs to be sourced and grown sustainably
- It could be argued that population growth is not the cause of poverty and lack of development but it is in fact the result of these issues. The Demographic Transition Model shows that the birth rate is very high in poor countries that have high infant & child mortality rates
- The real issue is high levels of consumption in the developed world rather than over-population in the developing world
E.I. WHY might ‘necessity be the mother of invention’ in relation to growing the supply of food? WHY might high population growth be a symptom of poverty rather than its cause? WHY might consumption in the developed world be a bigger problem than population growth in the developing world?
What are some of the sociological explanations of ethnic inequalities in the developing world?
Ethnic inequalities = the political, social and economic disadvantages felt by ethnic minority groups
Ethnic minority = A group within a society which has different national or cultural traditions from the main population
- Dependency theory would argue that ethnic inequalities are often a long term legacy of the divide and rule policies associated with colonialism. For example, the ethnic divide between the Hutus and the Tutsis in Rwanda, (which eventually led to geneocide in 1994), was due to a Belgian myth about the racial superiority of the Tutsis
- In contrast Modernisation theorists argue that it is often the traditional culture that causes ethnic inequalities rather than colonialism. For example in India the Caste system of social stratification has helped to reproduce and legitimate prejudice and discrimination towards poorer ethnic groups. This is a traditional feature of India culture rather than something that can be blamed on the British.
- Neoliberals would argue that aid is often diverted into internal military conflicts that help to perpetuate ethnic divisions and inequalities. E.g. many people suspect that in Uganda Musevini (the nation’s leader) has never been serious about capturing Joseph Kony. Maintaining the conflict with the Lord’s Resistance Army allowed Musevini to get more military aid from countries like the USA whilst continuing a conflict that has devastated the lives of northern ethnic groups in Uganda such as the Acholi
- People-centred approaches would argue that top down development often overlooks the needs of minority ethnic groups. For example national education systems may sometimes be designed without recognition of the needs of some ethnic groups (e.g. in terms of their language, pre-existing knowledge and culture)
E.I. - WHY is ethnic inequality a drag on global economic growth? WHY might a national education system be viewed suspicioulsy by some ethnic minorities?
Economic and social factors can lead to the marginalisation of some groups in developing countries. Explain why some sociologists would hold this view
Marginalisation - refers to the idea that some groups of people are socially disadvantaged and denied rights as they are seen to have a lower social status. Marginalised groups are socially excluded from mechanisms of power and influence.
- Marginalisation may result from poverty and lack of access to services. Collectively these factors can create a poverty trap for marginalised groups
- The poor in isolated rural areas are at particular risk of marginalisation as these areas tend to be the most socially disadvantaged (e.g. in relation to access to education and health services)
- Poverty and marginalisation affect some groups more than others; women, the uneducated, minority ethnic groups and the disabled (i.e. groups that according to Weberian theory have less status)
- For example in some societies women might be denied the right to education or legal rights relating to the ownership of property
- The starkest manifestation of the marginalisation of women in some highly patriarchal countries highlighted by Sen is the ‘missing women’ phenomenon: Perhaps 200 million ‘missing women’, some not born, some dying of cumulative neglect. Some people have called this ‘gendercide’. This phenomenon is most pronounced in South Asia (e.g. China, India and Pakistan).
- Minority ethnic groups such as the Karamojong in Uganda, or the Kurds In Turkey, may fear that ‘cultural assimilation’ is the aim of compulsory schooling. They fear that they may lose their own culture as a result and therefore socially exclude themselves from formal education
E.I. - WHY is there likely to be more poverty and fewer services in rural areas? WHY are marginalised groups likely to be socially excluded from mechanisms of power and influence (e.g. politics)?
The debt burden in developing countries is the biggest barrier to development. Explain why many sociologists hold this view.
Debt = The total amount of money owed by a country to banks or other lenders
Third World Debt Crisis = Many developing countries have very large debts, and the amount of money they owe is quickly increasing. Trying to pay off the debt (debt service) has become a serious problem for these countries, and it causes great hardship for their people. The amount of money owed by developing countries has increased dramatically since the early 1980’s (particularly as a result of oil price increases). These countries now owe money to commercial banks and also to organisations like the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and to First World governments.
- Poor countries are repaying debt (with interest) to already wealthy banks and governments rather than spending money on infrastructure or health and education. This can inhibit both economic and human development
- Often organisations such as the World Bank or the IMF which made the loans have demanded strict conditions for repayment (e.g. SAPs) that have made the daily life of people in developing countries more difficult
- As a result of these loans, they now have to pay the money back (with interest) but with limited resources and means to do so. This has led these countries to become dependent on wealthy countries for aid and further loans.
- According to Dependency Theory this has led poorer countries to become dependent on western capitalism and on western companies who are therefore able to exploit and further under-develop these countries
- Dependency Theorists such as Andre Gunder Frank and Teresa Hayter have argued that this debt is creating a system of neo-colonialism that is not as obvious as the empires of the past but just as powerful
E.I. - WHY might it be argued that the third world debt crisis is a new form of colonialism? WHY might the third world debt crisis make a mockery of international aid? WHY is the issue of third world debt a profound moral issue for many campaigners?
Unemployment and under-employment are significant problems for developing countries. Explain why many sociologists hold this view
Unemployment = When a person who is actively searching for employment is unable to find work. Unemployment is often used as a measure of the health of the economy.
Under-employment = People not working full time because they cannot find enough work
- The International Labour Organisation (ILO), part of the United Nations, claims that the employment situation is deteriorating in many developing regions of the world. This has been exacerbated by the effects of the 2008 global economic crisis
- For example the ILO claims that unemployment and underemployment are a significant problem in Latin America (currently the most urbanised region of the world). This is causing urban social problems such as poverty, crime and violence
- As manufacturing within factories makes more use of automated processes (robots, machines etc.) job losses increase
- Increasing numbers of people around the world are in work that is precarious or casual. This can create chronic stress and can suddenly lead to people losing their jobs or hours
- In developing countries there is more work done in the ‘informal sector’ due to the lack of paid employment opportunities e.g. self-employment, micro-enterprises, petty trading, casual and irregular work and personal services.
E.I. - WHY has the global economic crisis of 2008 had an effect on unemployment around the world? WHY is unemployent linked to social problems such as crime and political extremism? WHY might it be difficult to get accurate data on employment rates in some developing countries?
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/world-middle-east-19298405/quarter-egypts-youth-unemployed
