C1 Youth Cultures (AO2/AO3 & exam skills) Flashcards
1
Q
The following flash cards will help improve your skills of analysis/evaluation & strengthen your memory through spaced retrieval practice and a technique called elaborative interrogation.
WHAT IS ELABORATIVE INTERROGATION?
A
Elaborative Interrogation involves the learner looking for explanations for facts. A sizable body of evidence suggests that prompting students to answer ‘WHY’ & ‘HOW’ questions facilitates learning.
To help you do this think as hard as possible about the E.I. questions at the bottom of each answer in the following flash cards. What we think hard about is what we remember
►‘Memory is the residue of thought’ (Dan Willingham)
2
Q
Outline and explain what makes youth cultures different from mainstream culture?
Youth culture = the idea that young people tend to have similar habits, norms and values, which make up a distinctive and separate cultural world from that of adulthood or childhood
Youth cultures = the term youth cultures refers to subcultures within youth culture, groups such as hippies, skinheads & goths. These may be more distinctive in terms of dress, music and language
Mainstream culture = this term is used to describe the cultural norms and values of the majority of people in society
A
►In the table below there are a number of characteristics that make youth culture distinctive when compared to mainstream culture
E.I. - HOW can you use specific examples and studies to support and develop these points in the exam?
https://youtu.be/V7qi7qTJGPU?t=9m6s
3
Q
Outline and explain the characteristics of spectacular youth subcultures
Spectacular youth subcultures = This is a term that has been used to describe some of the most highly visible subcultures of the 1950s-80s e.g. Teddy Boys, punks, skinheads. They had flamboyant and recognisable styles and often had confrontational attitudes
A
- From the 1950s to the early 1980s there were dramatic youth subcultures such as the Teddy Boys, Skinheads and Punks. Because they adopted fashions and behaviours that were so distinctive, they were described as ‘spectacular youth subcultures’
- Much of the work on these spectacular youth subcultures was developed from a group of sociologists who belonged to the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS). They were Marxists and their work showed the importance of social class in the formation and behaviour of youth subcultures
- These spectacular youth subcultures were interpreted by the CCCS as offering a form of working class resistance against capitalism
- Members of spectacular youth subcultures shared a common outlook (i.e. similar norms and values – often based on defiance and rebellion) and had a distinctive ‘uniform’ that tended to shock
- These spectacular youth subcultures were homogenous and relatively static groupings in contrast to the fluidity and diversity of contemporary Neotribes
- Spectacular youth subcultures usually lasted for a number of years but according to Hebdige they eventually underwent a process of incorporation
E.I. - WHY might it be argued that spectactular youth subcultures no longer exist? WHY did the CCCS see the meaning of spectacular subcultures in terms of resistance? WHY does ‘incorporation’ lead to the demise of spectacular youth subcultures?
4
Q
Outline and explain the characteristics of neo tribes
Neo tribe = This concept is used to explain the proliferation of youth cultural styles, their transient nature and the tendency for the young to move between different styles at particular times. It stand in contrast to older more class based sub-cultural styles, which were more fixed and longer lasting.
A
- The view that fashion and musical styles adopted by young people are too fragmented & fluid to be described as subcultures is shared by a number of sociologists who studied developments in the 1990s such as Andy Bennett and Michael Maffesoli.
- They propose that the term ‘sub-culture’ be replaced by the term ‘neo tribe’ when discussing youth styles. This approach is sometimes called a ‘post-subcultural perspective’ and stands in opposition to the earlier CCCS research on ‘spectacular’ youth subcultures.
- Bennett says that neo tribes have a loose structure based on lifestyle and common choices. They share a loose attachment to a shared taste in music/fashion rather than a shared class background.
- In direct contrast to the class-based youth cultures identified by the CCCS, Neotribes are said to be more fleeting & organised around individual consumption choices. Young people are more likely to move swiftly through a succession of styles, “like tins of soup on a supermarket shelf‟ (Polhemus).
- Neo-tribes are therefore ‘style tribes’ where what often matters most to their members is fashion, music and entertainment rather than the political themes of resistance and rebellion
E.I. WHY is the dance music scence a good illustration of the ‘neotribe’ concept? WHY have contemporary youth styles become more varied, fluid and fragmented?
https://youtu.be/h_ADZ0pLWzE?t=8m23s
5
Q
What are some of the main arguments & evidence that support the view that females have little involvement in youth cultures?
A
- McRobbie and Garber believe that historically girls have played a smaller role in ‘street based’ subcultures than boys. These subcultures have been dominated by boys in line with patriarchal relationships in society
- Many spectacular youth sub-cultures of the past were predominantly male &, what is more, they were organized around a masculine style (e.g. according to Cohen’s semiotic analysis skinheads wore an exaggerated version of traditional male working class clothes)
- Girls are much more tightly controlled by parents and local community compared to their male counterparts. Girls have less of a public street life and are more confined to the home
- McRobbie and Garber claimed that the limited role of girls in spectacular youth subcultures was partly a self-fulfilling prophecy. Both the media and academic studies portrayed females as marginal, and therefore these youth subcultures had relatively little attraction for girls
E.I. - WHY have girls faced more social control than their male counterparts? WHY have girls often been invisible in media and academic studies of youth cultures? WHY have some youth cultures adopted a hyper-masculine style?
6
Q
What are some of the main arguments & evidence against the view that females have little involvement in youth cultures?
A
- Although McRobbie and Garber argued that girls played a smaller role in ‘street based’ subcultures they speculated that they might have their own culture, separate from the male-dominated subcultures. They describe this as a ‘bedroom culture’, since it involves girls spending time in their bedrooms, often in pairs, rather than in gangs on the street
- The contribution that girls have made to some spectacular youth subcultures has been overlooked by ‘malestream’ research. E.g. Reddington highlights the importance of women within punk.
- The involvement of women in youth cultures from the 1990s onwards has been more visible to many sociologists associated with the Post-Subcultural Perspective. E.g., according to Thornton, “Clubbing culture dissolved structural divisions such as class, race and gender”
- In her more recent work McRobbie argues that young women are increasingly reclaiming public space and asserting control over sexuality as they experience more economic and social opportunities. Some researchers even talk about ‘girl power’
E.I. - WHY had many researchers overlooked the existence of a ‘bedroom culture’? WHY were women so important in the Punk youth subculture? WHY have women become more visible in contemporary youth cultures?
7
Q
Outline and explain why some young people belong to youth cultures
A
- Functionalism argues that young people are attracted to youth cultures because they give them a sense of belonging and identity during the difficult & drawn out transition into adulthood.
- Hebdige argued that black youth created subcultures as a way of dealing with the problems of racism. Hebdige saw Reggae music and Rastafrianism as cultural resources that could enable black youth to resist racism by embracing an afro-centric identity
- Sociologists at the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) argued that young people from working class backgrounds belonged to youth cultures as a way of solving their problems. The clothing & hairstyles adopted were designed to shock, creating a sense of symbolic power that compensated for the wearers’ lack of real power in a capitalist society
- The media and culture industries can attract young people to particular youth cultures through publicity and advertising
E.I. - WHY do the media and culture industries want young people to belong to youth cultures? WHY might social marginalisation encourage some young people to join distinctive youth cultures?
8
Q
What are some of the main arguments & evidence that support the view that youth cultures are deviant?
Deviance = the violation of the norms associated with mainstream culture
A
- They often adopt clothing styles that are shocking and subvert social norms. E.g. the punk youth subculture studied by Hebdige represented a conscious rejection of high street fashion
- Many youth cultures are associated with leisure drugs of some kinds and risk taking (Katz refers to the thrill of risk taking behaviour as ‘edge work’)
- Many youth cultures are associated with delinquency and rebellion. E.g. Albert Cohen have linked working class youth sub-cultures to delinquency as a response to their sense of status frustration
- Crime rates are much higher amongst the young
E.I. - WHY might working class youth experience a sense of ‘status frustration’? WHY is there more recorded crime amongst the young compared to older people? WHY is drug taking a particular feature of some youth cultures?
9
Q
What are some of the main arguments & evidence against the view that youth cultures are deviant?
Deviance = the violation of the norms associated with mainstream culture
A
- Deviant youth cultures are exaggerated by the media. E.g. Stanley Cohen demonstrated how ‘moral panics’ often focus on the activities of young people who become scapegoats or ‘folk devils’ & are blamed for the moral decline of society
- Muncie has argued that young people on the whole are actually very conformist. The major interests of young people correspond to those of mainstream culture, they do not oppose it. In fact, in a national study of young people’s attitudes (Roberts 1997), the overwhelming majority were conformist in attitude.
- Even initially shocking youth styles quickly become mainstream (e.g. through a process Hebdige calls incorporation)
- Many youth cultures are simply a style choice rather than a rebellious or deviant lifestyle choice
E.I. - WHY might the labelling of youth cultures by the media and police lead to deviancy amplification? WHY has academic research and media reporting overlooked ‘ordinary youth’? WHY do moral panics often focus on youth cultures?
10
Q
What are some of the main arguments & evidence that support the view that youth cultures are closely linked to social class?
Social class = A group of people in society who share a similar economic position in terms of things like occupation, income and wealth
A
- Marxists believe that social class is the most crucial division in society & they have attempted to show the importance of social class in the formation and behaviour of youth subcultures. They argue that working class youth subcultures can be interpreted as a form of cultural resistance against capitalism & the class system
- The Marxist view is supported by the early work on British youth sub-cultures carried out by the CCCS. Phil Cohen’s semiotic analysis of skinheads is a good example of this approach. Skinhead clothes represented both a ‘caricature and reassertion of solid, male working-class toughness’.
- Middle class youth have also developed distinctive youth cultures of their own (the hippy counter-culture of the late 1960, for example). Brake suggests that working-class young people have generally formed delinquent youth subcultures, while cultural rebellion and political militancy are more typical of middle-class youth
- For Roberts (2005), it beggars belief “that youth culture has now somehow become classless when the life-phases that precede and follow youth continue to be highly socially stratified.” A lack of disposable income can impact on the sorts of youth cultural activities and identities that working class youth are able to forge
E.I. - HOW did the CCCS demonstrate that working class youth subcultures are a reaction to the exploitation and inequality that characterise a capitalist society? WHY and HOW does social class continue to shape youth cultural identities?
11
Q
What are some of the main arguments & evidence against the view that youth cultures are closely linked to social class?
Social class = A group of people in society who share a similar economic position in terms of things like occupation, income and wealth
A
- Post-sub-cultural theorists argue that youth styles are increasingly mixed, and no longer based as much on social divisions such as class as was the case previously.
- Bennett uses the term ‘neo-tribe’ to describe the collective behaviour of contemporary youth. He says they have a loose structure based on lifestyle and common choices. They share a loose attachment to a shared taste in music & fashion rather than a class background.
- In direct contrast to the class-based youth cultures identified by the CCCS, contemporary cultures of youth are said to be more fleeting & organised around individual consumption choices. Young people are more likely to move swiftly through a succession of styles, “like tins of soup on a supermarket shelf‟ (Polhemus 1996)
- According to Thornton ‘clubbing culture’ dissolved structural divisions such as class, race and gender
- Functionalists believe that all youth cultures are essentially the same. Social class is therefore not an important element as all youth cultures, irrespective of their style, perform the same functions
E.I. - HOW can the concept of ‘individualisation’ be linked to some of the points above? WHY did club cultures dissolve structural divisions such as class, race and gender?
12
Q
Outline and explain the impact of globalisation on youth cultures
Globalisation = the increasing interconnectedness of individuals, nations and regions of the world (Anthony Giddens)
A
- McDonaldisation of youth culture (Ritzer). E.g. The emergence of global brands represents the commercialisation & homogenization of youth culture. ‘Youth culture has now become big business – where multinational companies compete to sell thing ‘to kids’ on a global scale’ (Besley)
- The globalisation of youth cultures seems to mean that young people around the world are heavily influenced by American culture (‘cultural imperialism’)
- Hybrid youth cultures may emerge that are a mix of different cultural influences As Malone suggests, hip-hop exists as a global youth culture based around a particular style and identity. However, the meaning of this style is interpreted differently by youth in different countries (‘glocal’)
- Globalisation has been influenced by technological developments such as the internet and wireless communications. According to Bennett the internet, particularly social networking sites, are an important element of contemporary youth cultures (‘screenagers’)
E.I. - WHY is McDonalds used as a metaphor to describe the impact of globalisation on culture? WHY is the influence of American culture sometimes criticised as a form of ‘cultural imperialism’? WHY is ‘Grime’ music a good illustration of point no.3?
13
Q
What are the most effective ways of revising subject knowledge?
A
Use the ANSWER method below:
- Ask ‘How’’ and ‘Why’ questions when revising and try to connect ideas (this method is called ‘elaboration’)
- No cramming. Distribute your revision over time and used a spaced system of repetition
- Switch topics regularly when revising (this is called ‘interleaving’ and it will help you to identify connections between different topics)
- Words and visuals. Combine words and visual representations to create two ways of remembering key ideas (this is called ‘dual coding’)
- Examples. Your brain will find it easier to recall abstract ideas if you can relate concepts and theories to concrete examples
- Recall what you know. Scientific evidence suggests that ‘retrieval practice’ is much more effective than rereading and highlighting. Test yourself as much as possible and complete as many practice exam questions as you can. Ask your teacher for feedback on your practice
WATCH THE FOLLOWING VIDEO FOR MORE INFORMATION ON THESE TECHNIQUES: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CPxSzxylRCI
14
Q
Outline and explain ways in which consumerism has influenced youth cultures
Consumerism = a term used by sociologists to describe the pressure that society puts on individuals to purchase goods and services in ever greater amounts
A
- Postmodernists argue that consumerism has become central to the way in which young people construct their identities. ‘”Now, more than ever kids find their identities and values in the marketplace, rather than in traditional sources such as the family, church and school’ (Besley 2002)
- Consumerism has enabled young people to choose from a range of different fashions, music tastes and identities. This creates a ‘supermarket of style’ (Polhemus) & enables young people to express themselves through their clothes, musical taste etc. (e.g. brands have symbolic value to some young people)
- According to a recent Guardian article by Alex Petridis ‘teenagers are now so satiated by consumerism that they don’t feel the need to rebel through dress or ritual’
- The speed at which the cycle of production and consumption now moves means there isn’t the time for spectacular youth subcultures to develop
E.I. - WHY has consumerism had such an impact on youth identities? HOW can consumerism be linked to Thornton’s idea of ‘subcultural capital’? WHY is the speed of consumerism linked to the decline of ‘spectacular youth subcultures’?
15
Q
How much time do I have for the C1 exam paper in total?
A
You have two and a half hours in total for the C1 exam. There are three sections (a,b & c) in this exam and Youth Cultures is section b
Watch this screencast for more information:
16
Q
What are some of the main arguments & evidence that support the view that spectacular youth subcultures are a thing of the past?
Spectacular youth subcultures = This is a term that has been used to describe some of the most highly visible subcultures of the 1950s-80s e.g. Teddy Boys, punks, skinheads. They had flamboyant and recognisable styles and often had confrontational attitudes
A
- The decline in spectacular youth subcultures is linked to individualisation & the decline and blurring of social class identities
- As a result Post-subcultural theorists say that distinctive youth cultures (i.e. subcultures) are a thing of the past. They say that youth cultures have now turned into Neotribes.
- Whereas many young people in the 70s and 80s appeared to have a deep commitment to a particular single set of styles and values which they would identify themselves with, e.g. skinhead or punk, now young people’s tastes are more varied. Bennett found that clubbers might be binge drinking or leisure drug using at the weekends, but would slip back into boring predictability on Monday when they went back to work, college or university
- Consumerism gives young people many more options to choose their own individual style rather than adopting the uniform of a particular youth subculture. Polemus calls this situation a ‘supermarket of style’
- Muggleton suggests that the speed with which fashions and styles change means that collective action by young people is no longer possible. It is no longer possible to be authentically part of a rebellious subculture, when others are accepting and tolerant of style differences. It is also the case that ‘rebellion’ is often marketed by commercial interests (‘incorporation’)
- We now live in a world where teenagers are more interested in constructing an identity online than they are in making an outward show of their allegiances and interests. Furthermore teenagers are now so satiated by the plethora of entertainment on offer that they don’t feel the need to rebel through dress or ritual
E.I. - WHY might the decline and blurring of social class identities be linked to the decline of spectacular youth subcultures? HOW do Neotribes differ when compared to spectacular youth subcultures? WHY is consumerism linked to the decline of youth suncultures?
17
Q
What are some of the main arguments & evidence against the view that spectacular youth subcultures are a thing of the past?
Spectacular youth subcultures = This is a term that has been used to describe some of the most highly visible subcultures of the 1950s-80s e.g. Teddy Boys, punks, skinheads. They had flamboyant and recognisable styles and often had confrontational attitudes
A
- There are still some examples of spectacular youth subcultures in contemporary society. Paul Hodkinson uses the example of the Goth subculture to illustrate this point
- Even in the past most young people were not involved in spectacular youth subcultures. Sara Delamont argues that sociologists have neglected ‘ordinary youth’ in favour of the more spectacular and stylized youth cultures. Therefore the decline in spectacular youth subcultures is not as dramatic as it may first appear as they were never as popular in the past as the sociological literature implies
E.I. - WHY has the goth subculture endured for so long? WHY have ‘ordinary youth’ been neglected in sociological research?
18
Q
How do I structure longer essay questions that ask me to evaluate a claim?
These are questions that typically ask you to ‘evaluate/assess a view’, or start with the command ‘to what extent’
A
19
Q
Outline and explain the reasons why youth cultures are often seen as being masculine
A
- Many youth cultures are often seen as masculine because most of the research into spectacular and deviant youth subcultures has been centred on males. This is known as ‘malestream’ research and according to Christine Griffin it has led to the invisibility of girls in academic studies.
- This has led to a focus on male dominated street based youth subcultures at the expense of the female ‘bedroom culture’ (McRobbie & Garber)
- According to Thompson the media portray youth cultures as masculine and violent because it makes interesting reading
- Some youth cultures have adopted an overtly masculine style and identity (e.g. Phil Cohen’s study of the ‘skinheads’)
E.I. - WHY has sociological research often had a malestream bias? HOW can point no. 3 be linked to the concept of ‘news values’?
20
Q
What are some of the main arguments & evidence that support the view that youth cultures can act as a form of resistance?
Cultural resitance = any action that seeks to counter the prevailing cultural trend – particularly those trends that create inequality along lines of class, gender & ethnicity
A
- The CCCS argued that ‘spectacular’ youth subcultures, such as skinheads and punks, were a form of ‘symbolic’ resistance to the social and economic problems faced by young working class people.
- Moreover, such styles allegedly represented a form of cultural resistance to ruling class hegemony. They possessed their own norms, values, rituals, sanctions and dress codes that were antagonistic to mainstream culture
- E.g. According to Jefferson & Hall the clothing style of the working class ‘Teddy Boys’ (e.g. the Edwardian ‘Dandy’) jacket was an attempt to show their contempt for the class system by copying the style of their so-called ‘superiors’
- The Skinhead youth subculture could be seen as an attempt to preserve a working class identity which was felt to be under threat (Phil Cohen). Skinheads were therefore symbolically resisting the marginalisation of the working class
- According to Hebdige the Punk youth subculture resisted capitalism by rejecting consumerism in favour of a DIY ethos. Feminists have also highlighted the ways in which punk allowed women to resist traditional feminine stereotypes
- According to Sivanandan the ‘Babylon generation’ of black youth used Reggae sound systems and the signs of Rastafarianism as resources for resistance to white culture and racial subordination
E.I. - HOW was the cultural resistance of the skinheads linked to containerisation? WHY did the original punks resist consumerism? HOW did the Riot Grrrl scence continue the cultural resistance started by Punk? WHY did many of the second generation of afro caribbean rebel against white British culture?
21
Q
What are some of the main arguments & evidence against the view that youth cultures can act as a form of resistance?
Cultural resitance = any action that seeks to counter the prevailing cultural trend – particularly those trends that create inequality along lines of class, gender & ethnicity
A
- According to Stanley Cohen there is no empirical evidence that youth interpret their styles in the way the CCCS do & there is a danger that sociologists read too much into youth styles and see what they want to see (i.e. evidence of resistance)
- Only a very small minority of youth have ever been involved in deviant or political subcultures because the majority of ‘ordinary youth’ lead very conventional, mundane and conformist lives
- Stanley Cohen sees youth subcultures as the products of manipulation by the media, rather than some attempt to resist capitalism. As such, youth subcultures are the product of commercial interests whose only interest is making money
- Post-subcultural perspectives argue that contemporary youth cultures are much more about style and escapism than resistance and opposition to mainstream culture. There is no underlying meaning of resistance according to this approach. Most youths are conformist in the sense that they are fully immersed in consumerism and the global brands associated with consumer culture
- Reimer (1995) argues that the central feature of youth in modern societies is the preoccupation with ‘fun’ ‑ the constant search for excitement and stimulation that cuts across all other sources of identity (class, gender, ethnicity, and so forth). The basic lifestyle orientation of youth culture is towards entertainment rather than resistance
E.I. - WHY is the semiotic approach employed by the CCCS very subjective? WHY might it be argued that youth cultures are created by the media and culture industries? WHY might most youth be very conformist?
22
Q
How do I structure longer essay questions that ask me to evaluate a theory?
A
23
Q
Outline and explain how youth cultures are influenced by the media
A
- The media play a crucial role in the creation of youth cultures. From music to fashion, advertising transmits messages and images of different styles and trends.
- The development of Web 2.0 and wireless communications has increased the impact of the media on young people. (Douglas Rushkoff uses the term ‘screenagers’ to describe contemporary youth). The global nature of the new media has helped to create new youth cultural hybrids
- Stanley Cohen argues that media led moral panics about youth cultures are a good example of deviancy amplification as more and more young people are made aware and attracted to the styles and behaviour through the publicity
- Thornton looks at the way that club culture is shaped by the media in terms of how it influences ‘subcultural capital’. This term basically means ‘hipness’ and is used to describe how certain people in the rave scene were ‘in the know’ about which clubs to go to, which music or DJs to listen and dance to etc. The media play a vital role in communicating this information (e.g. pirate radio stations were very important to the rave scene)
- The CCCS argue that authentic street based youth subculture are hijacked by the media and culture industries. This leads to a process that Hebdige calls ‘incorporation’
E.I. - HOW are ‘new media’ changing the nature of youth cultures? HOW can the concept of ‘glocal’ be linked to point no.2? WHY might moral panics glamorise deviant behaviour?
24
Q
Outline and explain why anti-school subcultures develop?
Anti-school subcultures = The subcultures of groups of pupils who oppose or resist school values, rules and regulations. (also called ‘counter-school subcultures’)
A
- Interactionists argue that our identities are constructed through social interaction and that the labels given to us by people in positions of power have the potential to create self-fulfilling prophecies. They therefore suggest that anti-school subcultures are a response to the way pupils are perceived by teachers, by other pupils, and by themselves
- For example Hargreaves found that working class pupils were more likely to be placed in lower sets and feel labelled as failures. Because of this they were likely to reject the school’s values and follow their own delinquent values instead
- Similarly Lacey found that pupils in the bottom sets developed an anti-school subculture which became more extreme as the years went by. The school values were turned upside down – pupils gained prestige for giving cheek to a teacher, truanting, refusing to do homework and for smoking and drinking
- Carolyn Jackson’s recent study suggests that anti-school subcultures may be motivated by two sets of fears – social failure (not wanting to appear a ‘swot’) and academic failure (not wanting to appear stupid). She argues that an emphasis on constant examinations may be making things worse
- Paul Willis in his classic study Learning To Labour studied a small group of working class lads who developed an anti-school subculture. However rather than emphasising the role of schools in producing the subculture Willis emphasised external influences. According to Willis, the lads’ behaviour reflected their expectations of future employment and the working class subculture they brought to the school with them
E.I. - HOW can Albert Cohen’s concept of status frustation be linked to points no.2 and no.3? WHY might it be argued that pupil attitudes are shaped more by parent expectations than teacher expectations? WHY might the current system of examinations be increasing the two sets of fears highlighted by Jackson?
25
***How*** **much time** should I spend on the **Youth Cultures section** of the **C1 exam?**
You should spend between **15 - 20 minutes** on the **15 mark question** (compelsory question)
You should spend between **40 - 45 minutes** on the **35 mark question** (choose one question only from the two provided)
Watch the following screencast for more information:
[https://youtu.be/BbHQRIVeBLw?t=8m28s](https://youtu.be/BbHQRIVeBLw?t=8m28s)
26
***Outline*** and ***explain*** reasons why **young people are seen as a problem for society**
1. There is a long history of seeing young people as a highly **‘deviant’ group Geoff Pearson** describes waves of public outrage against rowdy and unruly youth ever since the 19th century.
2. More recently they have been fears about **working class youth** with the media using the **symbolic shorthand** of the **‘hooded top’** to represent this group as a problem
3. The **media** have often played a key role in constructing youth as a problem for society by generating **moral panics** about certain groups of young people and their culture. **Stanley Cohen** argued that the young are often used as scapegoats or **‘folk devils’** by the media
4. The focus in sociological research on **‘delinquent subcultures’ &** **spectacular youth subcultures** at the expense of **‘ordinary’ youth** has also contributed to the idea that youth is essentially a period of **‘storm and stress’** (**Sara Delamont** argues that sociologists have neglected ‘ordinary youth’ in favour of the more spectacular and stylized youth cultures)
5. However, although it can be argued that the idea of **‘deviant youth’ is a social construction** it cannot be denied that there are **dramatically higher criminal offending rates** for the young when compared to over groups (although **selective law enforcement** by the police may also be an issue here)
**E.I. -** ***WHY*** are certain groups of young people (e.g. the working class, ethnic minorities) more likely to be seen as a problem? ***WHY*** might selective law enfocement be an issue when interpreting crime statistics on young offenders?
[https://youtu.be/GnfMGMLPbac?t=1m43s](https://youtu.be/GnfMGMLPbac?t=1m43s)
[https://youtu.be/9VeMgClgHMs?t=9m20s](https://youtu.be/9VeMgClgHMs?t=9m20s)
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xWbilDsEwbA](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xWbilDsEwbA)
27
***How*** do I **structure longer essay questions** that ask me to **evaluate sociological explanations?**
►Watch the following screencast for more guidance
[https://youtu.be/pM-XshFieao?t=7m57s](https://youtu.be/pM-XshFieao?t=7m57s)
28
***How*** do I structure my answer to the **compulsory 15 mark question** on Youth Cultures?
►Watch the following screencast for more guidance
[https://youtu.be/RE0\_jdqz1XA?t=5m6s](https://youtu.be/RE0_jdqz1XA?t=5m6s)
**\*you can adopt the same structure for the compulsory 15 mark question on Media**
29
***How*** can I **display explicit evaluation** in my answer to the **35 mark question?**
1. This may occur ‘inside’ a paragraph close to the point being made (and is generally a critical point). We call this the **'coulmbo moment'**
2. It may happen in a **mini-paragraph** just after a paragraph exploring a specific argument
3. It may also happen in a **'SA paragraph'** near the end of your answer
Watch the following screencast to learn more about how to **boost your AO3 mark** using these techniques:
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LghY3irhbSY](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LghY3irhbSY)
30
**What** are some ***weaknesses*** and **criticisms** of **Functionalist theories** of **youth cultures?**
## Footnote
**Functionalist view:**
**Parsons** referred to youth culture as being a bridge between childhood and adulthood. It is a rite of passage for people before they become adults
**Eisenstadt** argued that youth culture bonds young people and creates a sense of community as they progress from the ascribed status given to them by family and move towards an achieved status which they create for themselves. Eisenstadt said that the form of the youth culture is unimportant because the underlying function of youth cultures remains the same
[https://youtu.be/p8J1qUVfBNQ](https://youtu.be/p8J1qUVfBNQ)
1. Functionalists **over-emphasise the shared features of youth cultures** and therefore **ignore the important differences** that exist between distinct youth cultures
2. As Functionalism assumes that youth culture have the same underlying functions it **provides no insight into how the transition to adulthood might be influenced by social factors** such as social class, gender and ethnicity
3. For example, **Marxists** emphasise the way in which working class youth subcultures are a form of resistance to capitalism
4. **Feminists** argue that **Functionalists are malestream** and have ignored the very distinctive ways in which young women experience youth cultures
**E.I. *WHY*** does Functionalism not account for changes in youth style or the form of youth cultures? ***WHY*** might the transition into adulthood be heavily influenced by the social background of young people?
[https://youtu.be/p8J1qUVfBNQ?t=7m42s](https://youtu.be/p8J1qUVfBNQ?t=7m42s)
31
**What** are some ***weaknesses*** and **criticisms** of **Marxist theories** of **youth cultures?**
## Footnote
**The Marxist view:**
Many of the Marxists, in the 1970s were working within the **CCCS in Birmingham University**. They argued that working class youth created youth subcultures as an act of cultural resistance to the norms and values of capitalism. They decoded the subversive meaning of these spectacular subcultures through their use of semiotic analysis.
[https://youtu.be/UFI1pxHOuPE](https://youtu.be/UFI1pxHOuPE)
1. The main criticism is that **Marxists were finding meanings that did not exist**. Because they were looking for examples relating to class and cultural resistance, they interpreted the subcultures in this way
2. **Feminists challenge the CCCS for ignoring girls** in their subcultural analyses
3. Marxists overlooked the majority of 'ordinary youth' who did not belong to 'spectacular youth subcultures'
4. **Postmodernists argue that the work of the CCCS lacks temporal validity** (i.e. it is very dated). Distinctive youth subcultures have largely disappeared
**E.I. *WHY*** might the semiotic anlaysis of youth subcultures lead to 'confirmation bias'? ***WHY*** might social class no longer be a central feature of youth cultures?
[https://youtu.be/Yhz8zAkfvcY?t=16s](https://youtu.be/Yhz8zAkfvcY?t=16s)
32
**What** are some ***weaknesses*** and ***criticisms*** of **Postmodernist theories of youth cultures?**
## Footnote
**The Postmodernist view (also known as 'Post-subcultural theory):**
There are no spectacular youth cultures based on social class because young people pick and mix styles to create individual identities that have personal meaning for them.
The example of ‘club culture’ supports the postmodernist view that class is no longer an important element of contemporary youth cultures. The club and dance culture is an example of what **Bennett** called a ‘neo-tribe’. He argued that the concept of youth subcultures, based on social class, was no longer suited to the fluid and complex youth styles of contemporary society. A neo-tribe was a more fluid association which people could move in and out of over time, reflecting the transitory and increasingly elongated nature of youth. Friendship groups included people with a wide range of class backgrounds. This was unlike the mostly working class subcultures of earlier generations.
[https://youtu.be/lRhz6XZQ52k](https://youtu.be/lRhz6XZQ52k)
1. For **Roberts (2005), it beggars belief “that youth culture has now somehow become classless when the life-phases that precede and follow youth continue to be highly socially stratified.”** A lack of disposable income can impact on the sorts of youth cultural activities and identities that working class youth are able to forge
2. There are **still some distinct youth subcultures**, with clear style and music allegiances –for example, **goths** and emos –so not everyone mixes styles
3. The mixed-up, fluid world of neo-tribes in which everyone is equal is not true for many groups of young people, who may still **divide themselves clearly on social class, gender or ethnic lines**
4. **Consumption is still related to** categories such as **social class**. **Owen Jones** has noted how working class youth were demonized and ridiculed for appropriating symbols of the upper class (e.g. **Burberry** clothing)
5. The research carried out by this perspective has often been based on **ethnography**. This may **lack representativeness**
6. Their **limited focus on dance and music cultures** means that they have produced only a **partial analysis** of contemporary youth identities
**E.I. - *HOW*** might lack of disposable income prescribe the sorts of youth cultural activities and identities that working class youth are able to forge? ***WHY*** might ethnographic research lack representativeness? ***WHY*** does the concept of a 'neotribe' not apply to groups like goths?
[https://youtu.be/lRhz6XZQ52k?t=12m45s](https://youtu.be/lRhz6XZQ52k?t=12m45s)
33
**What** are some ***weaknesses*** and ***criticisms*** of **Feminist theories of youth cultures?**
## Footnote
**The Feminist view:**
Feminists argue that the role of girls and young women in youth cultures has often been ignored by the other ‘malestream’ theories on youth cultures.
**McRobbie and Garber (1976)** argued that when girls did appear in the research, it was fleeting, or it reinforced stereotypical views of girls, often just presenting them as ‘passive girlfriends’. They argued that girls negotiate different spaces (‘bedroom cultures') to those inhabited by boys and their friendship groups are often very close knit.
Furthermore, since Punk, there is some evidence that girls have developed youth cultures that resist patriarchy (for example Riot Grrls), At the same time **Mitchell (2007)** argues that the pressure on women to remain youthful means that many women attempt to protect a consumer-based ‘girly’ form of youth culture well into adulthood
[https://youtu.be/Pk4I67oyDIU?t=36s](https://youtu.be/Pk4I67oyDIU?t=36s)
1. **Postmodernists** argue that gender is less significant due to the **fragmentation of gender roles**. They argue that youth styles and groups are no longer as clearly influenced by gender than in the past
2. The original work on **‘Bedroom Cultures’ by McRobbie & Garber lacks temporal validity.** E.g. according to research by **Chatterton & Hollands (2001)** the growth of city nightlife, changing attitudes to women’s behaviour and increased self-confidence have all combined to change female social behaviour. They are now more likely to have a public social life, using clubs and pubs as much as young males
3. The focus on gender, while understandable and interesting, has tended to **neglect analysis based around categories such as class and ethnicity** – particularly where they relate to women
**E.I. - *HOW*** have gender roles undergone a process of 'fragmentation'? ***WHY*** was the punk youth subculture particularly significant for women?
[https://youtu.be/Pk4I67oyDIU?t=8m48s](https://youtu.be/Pk4I67oyDIU?t=8m48s)
34
**How** can **Interactionist ideas** be **applied** to the study of **youth cultures?**
## Footnote
**Interactionist theory recap:**
Interactionism argues that people’s self concepts (who they think they are) are based on their understanding of how others perceive them (‘the looking glass self’)
We act towards others on the basis of how we interpret their action, the same action can be interpreted differently by different people – we need to understand these specific meanings to understand people’s actions.
We are constantly ‘taking on the role of the other’ – thinking about how people see us and reacting accordingly.
Interactionist ideas have led to the development of some influential ideas in Sociology such as **Goffman’s dramaturgical theory** and **Becker’s labelling theory.**
[**https://youtu.be/2w4uCBimaG4**](https://youtu.be/2w4uCBimaG4)
1. **Becker** suggested that many young people commit minor acts of deviance that go unnoticed and have no long-term consequences for their self-concept
2. However, members of **working class youth subcultures** and **ethnic minorities** are **more likely to be targeted by the police and negatively labelled.** In the UK, in 2013, an **Equality and Human Rights Commission report** found that Black and Asian young people were up to 29 times more likely to be stopped and searched by the police compare to other ethnic groups
3. According to Interactionist theory young people may respond to the label by acting in a more deviant manner, thus creating a **self-fulfilling prophecy** and **master status**
4. **Stanley Cohen’s** research on **moral panics and youth cultures** was influenced by Interactionism. Teenagers are often labelled as a problem by media (**folk devil**). This can lead to **‘moral panic’** about a particular group of young people. Young people read about and are attracted to the excitement of misbehaviour. Therefore, ‘moral panics’ have the unintended consequence of encouraging more misbehaviour (i.e. **deviancy amplification**)
**E.I. - *WHY*** might young people from working class and ethnic minority backgrounds be more likely to be labelled as 'deviant'? ***WHY*** might the publicity surrounding a moral panic lead to deviancy amplification?
[https://youtu.be/GnfMGMLPbac?t=2m50s](https://youtu.be/GnfMGMLPbac?t=2m50s)
[https://youtu.be/9VeMgClgHMs?t=9m20s](https://youtu.be/9VeMgClgHMs?t=9m20s)
35
**Outline** and ***explain*** the **reasons for the development of youth cultures**
1. **Economic changes:** E.g. **Abrams** says that youth culture developed because of increasing employment levels and **a rise in prosperity** in the 1950s. **Firth** links the creation of the **‘teenager’** with consumption. There was a need for people to buy certain products, such as those produced by the **fashion and music industries**.Youth cultures created a **market** for these industries.
2. Furthermore, after WW2 there was a **‘baby boom’** that led to more young people in the population.This created a **large market** for the industries mentioned above. **Nowadays** many young people have more money to spend on themselves than was the case previously.They may have part time jobs when studying or be supported by grandparents. In addition young people are leaving home and having children later in life
3. **The growth of the mass media:** The media play a key role in informing young people of new trends, fashion and music. **Thornton** suggests that many young people aim to have **subcultural capital**, which is insider knowledge of a particular youth culture. This brings high status to those who have such knowledge
4. According to **Stanley Cohen moral panics** about young people being a problem (**folk devil**) can also play a role in giving young people a separate sense of identity
5. **Globalisation** means that young people are more aware of other cultures and adopt cultural patterns to create their own cultural values
**E.I. - *WHY*** might some people argue that youth cultures are largely the invention of big business? ***WHY*** might some people disagree with the view that youth cultures are invented by big business?
[https://youtu.be/V7qi7qTJGPU?t=9m45s](https://youtu.be/V7qi7qTJGPU?t=9m45s)
36
***Outline*** and ***explain*** the ways in which **youth cultures are influenced by ethnic minorities**
## Footnote
**Ethnicity =** A social group that shares a common and distinctive culture, religion, language, or the like
**Ethnic minority =** A group within a society which has different national or cultural traditions from the main population
**Afro-Caribbean =** A person of African descent living in or coming from the Caribbean (e.g. Jamaica)
**Asian =** A native of Asia or a person of Asian descent
1. **Migration from the Caribbean** following WW2 has been **one of the most significant influences on British youth culture**. Many genres of music, slang and fashion have been shaped by the influence of **Afro-Caribbean culture** (particularly **Jamaica**)
2. **Caribbean and Asian cultural styles** have been adopted by many young people in the UK. **Hybrid cultures** exist which combine UK popular styles with minority ethnic culture (e.g. **brasian culture** and **bhangra styles**)
3. According to **Sivanandan** black youth used **Reggae music** and the signs of **Rastafarianism** as resources for **resistance to white culture and racial subordination** in the 1970s
4. **Hip Hop** writer **Tricia Rose** describes how music and other elements of youth culture provide a **critical source of political expression for ethnic minorities in the context of oppression:** “Under social conditions in which sustained frontal attacks on powerful groups are strategically unwise or successfully constrained, oppressed people use language, dance and music to mock those in power, express rage and produce fantasies of subversion” (**Rose**)
**E.I. - *HOW*** has British youth culture been influenced by Jamaican popular culture and music? ***WHY*** might music and dance provide a critical source of political expression and cultural resistance for minority ethnic groups? ***WHY*** might hip hop be considered to be the
[https://youtu.be/Yhz8zAkfvcY?t=3m58s](https://youtu.be/Yhz8zAkfvcY?t=3m58s)
37
***Outline*** and ***explain*** the ways in which **youth cultures are influenced by national identities**
## Footnote
**Nationalism =** Involves a sense of pride and commitment to a nation, and a very strong sense of national identity
**Extreme nationalism =** Versions of nationalism that exclude certain groups, defining the national community in ethnic, linguistic, cultural, historic, or religious terms (or a combination of these)
1. Some youth cultures have developed **extreme nationalistic views**; in particular, **far right politics** and **racist beliefs**
2. For example, the **second wave of skinheads** became associated with **extreme nationalism**
3. However as **Don Letts** argues, **Skinhead style as a manifestation of ‘white pride’ is structured in contradiction.** Paradoxically the fashion and music of the skinheads re-worked some aspects of **black cultural style**. Musically the original skinhead cultures were also **heavily influenced by black musical styles, notably reggae and ska**
4. Some of the youth cultures linked to racism are found in areas where migration patterns mean that there are also many non-white minority groups. **Nayar** suggests that white ethnicity is therefore reinforced in such areas because, white working class youths choose to see **‘Britishness’** as under threat. The **skinheads’ concern over territory**, the marking and regulation of their neighbourhood by their presence and their graffiti, also points to a constant need to defend what is ‘theirs’ illustrates this argument
5. Not all nationalism is necessarily a bad or dangerous thing. **Welsh and Scottish nationalism** often embrace minority ethnic groups. Just as Black young people used reggae as part of their cultural identity some **Welsh musicians** have sung **Welsh language lyrics** to **emphasise their Welsh identity** (e.g. the band **Super Furry Animals**)
**E.I. - *HOW*** does the film 'This is England' illustrate some of the issues above?
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H0jkv2bRFgQ](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H0jkv2bRFgQ)
38
***Outline*** and ***explain*** the ways in which **youth cultures have changed over time**
1. **Postmodernists** argue that the **spectacular class based youth subcultures** described by Marxists in the 1970s have been **replaced by neo-tribes** based on **style** and **consumerism**
2. **Girls have become more visible** and are **not confined to the bedroom culture** identified by **McRobbie & Garber**
3. The **globalisation of youth cultures** has led to the development of **hybrid youth cultures** that are a mix of different cultural influences
4. The development of **Web 2.0** and **wireless communications** has increased the impact of the media on youth cultures. (**Douglas Rushkoff** uses the term ‘screenagers’ to describe contemporary youth)
**E.I. - *WHY*** have we seen a decline in 'spectacular youth subcultures'? ***HOW*** have youth cultures been influenced by Web 2.0 and wireless communications?
