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Psychology A level > C3: Child Psychology > Flashcards

C3: Child Psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

Barkley-Levenson: aim

A

Whether teens attribute greater values to rewards or whether the value of money is greater due to the fact that typically they have less access to it and experience with it.

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2
Q

Barkley-Levenson: research method

A

Quasi experiment with independent measures in a lab environment

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3
Q

Barkley-Levenson: hypotheses

A

1) Adolescents will exhibit greater behavioural sensitivity to increasing expected value than adults
2) Neuro-biologically ventral striatum activation will modulate in proportion to increasing expected value more for adolescents than adults
3) Adults who behave like adolescents in terms of gambling behaviour will not exhibit hyperactive stratal activation

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4
Q

Barkley-Levenson: dependent variable

A

Was the performance on a sample mixed gambles game during an fMRI scan

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5
Q

Barkley-Levenson: independent variable

A

Whether the participant was an adult or an adolescent and therefore it was naturally occurring

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6
Q

Barkley-Levenson: secondary analysis

A

Conducted to test the hypothesis that an exaggerated ventral striatum activation in adolescents would be observed even after matching adolescents and adults on subjective valuation (acceptance of gambles)

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7
Q

Barkley-Levenson: participants

A
  • 19 healthy right handed adults between the ages of 25-30, with a mean age of 27.9 years old (11 females, 8 males)
  • 22 healthy right handed adolescents between the ages of 13 and 17 years old, with a mean age of 15.6 (11 females, 11 males)
  • All participants had reported no psychiatric or neurological illnesses or developmental delays and had no metal in their bodies, not taken psychoactive medication
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8
Q

Barkley-Levenson: how were participants recruited

A

Through posters and internet advertisements approved through the University of California (UCLA) Institutional Review Board and through a database of prior research participants

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9
Q

Barkley-Levenson: procedure

A
  • Participants attended an intake and neuro-imaging session in the lab where asked to sign consent forms and provide primary source of income and amount of spending money per month
  • Significant different in the amount of money adolescents and adults had per month
  • Participants then familiarised with MRI scanner and awarded $20 for completing the intake session
  • They were told the money given is ‘playing money’ where there was a possibility of earning more or losing it all
  • One week after the participants has taken part in the intake, they were asked to return for their fMRI scans, this used a 3-Tesla Siemans Trio MRI machine
  • During this, participants asked to complete a gambling task where they were presented a series of gambles with a 50% probability of gaining/losing the amount
  • The side of the spinner on which the gain and loss appeared and the order of the stimuli was counterbalanced across participants, and for each trial, participants decided whether or not they would be willing to play that gamble for real money.
  • Participants extensively trained before the scan to make sure they understood all aspects of the gambling task
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10
Q

Barkley-Levenson: qualitative results

A
  • Acceptance rates did not change in adults and adolescents where there was no risk involved
  • All participants more likely to accept a gamble where the expected value was positive
  • Positive expected value had a bigger impact on adolescents than adults, this was a significant difference showing a stronger influence on gambling choices of adolescents and greater activation of the ventral striatum.
  • No significant difference in reaction times and on gain-only or loss-only trials.
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11
Q

Barkley-Levenson: conclusions

A
  • Adolescents risk taking behaviour is affected by the activity in the ventral striatum, as teens showed more activity in this area as the expected value increased, and this is something that changes over time through neural development.
  • Not the money as a reward that caused the differences in responses but rather the differences in the valuation of money which is affected by our brain activity.
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12
Q

Van Leeuwen: aim

A

To investigate whether biological factors and/or environmental factors affect intelligence using twins, parents and siblings

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13
Q

Van Leeuwen: research method

A

Series of mini case studies and a correlational study

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14
Q

Van Leeuwen: participants

A

112 families from the Netherlands were studied through Twin Registry from the VU University of Amsterdam

  • Families with twins and an extra sibling between the ages of 9 and 14 and both parents were selected to take part in the study
  • Initially, 214 families were contacted via letter sent out two months before the twins 9th birthday, followed by an phone call two weeks later
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15
Q

Van Leeuwen: characteristics of participants

A
  • 23 pairs of male monozygotic twins
  • 23 pairs of male dizygotic twins
  • 25 pairs of female monozygotic twins
  • 21 pairs of dizygotic female twins
  • 20 pairs of dizygotic pairs of opposite sex twins
  • Mean age of twins was 9.1 years
  • Mean age of siblings was 11.9 years
  • Mean age of biological mother was 41.9 years and for biological fathers was 43.7 years
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16
Q

Van Leeuwen: procedure

A
  • All parents sign consent forms for children and themselves, children also signed consent forms
  • Study was approved by the Central Committee on Research involving Human Subjects
  • Parents told they were compensated for any travel expenses incurred and that all children took part would receive a present
  • Families took part in a number of measures including MRI scans, cheek swabs and cognitive testing
  • All childrenn tested in separate rooms using Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices (SM)) at their own pace after verbal instructions given
  • Parentd asked to complete the Raven Advanced Progressive Matrices (AMP) using written instructions at own pace
  • Procedure took around 5 hours with two short breaks and a longer lunch break
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17
Q

Van Leeuwen: Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices

A
  • 60 problems divided into 5 sets of 12
  • In each set the first problem is as newly as possible self-evident and then the problems becoming progressively more difficult
  • Provides an index of general intelligence
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18
Q

Van Leeuwen: Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices

A
  • Administeres to adults as the SMP is too easy
  • Test is comparable with the SMP but more difficult
  • Set 1 has 12 practice items to familiarise the participants with the test
  • Set 2 conssists of 26 items which are identical in presentation and argument to those in set 1
  • The items progressively get more difficult and complex
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19
Q

Van Leeuwen: number or participants in each condition and the mean scored

A 
Fathers = 94, 27 
Mothers = 95, 25.9
Male siblings = 44, 43.8
Female siblings = 57, 46.4
Male twins = 114, 36.7
Female twins = 110, 36.6
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20
Q

Van Leeuwen: maximum score for parents and children

A 
Parents = 36 
Children =  60
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21
Q

Van Leeuwen: key findings

A
  • No sex differences found in intelligence
  • Correlations higher in monozygotic twins than for any other first degree relative
  • More variance in siblings IQ in twins even through the same test was used, cannot be fully explained by age
  • Genetics accounts for 67% of variation in intelligence and the remainder is due to random environmental issues
  • For lower IQ groups, interaction between genetic make up or genotype and environment was higher
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22
Q

Van Leeuwen: conclusions

A
  • Variability in fluid intelligence (as measured by Raven) is largely explained by genetic effects that are passed from parents to children
  • Individual differences in intelligence are largely accounted for by genetic differences
  • Environmental factors are significantly more important in children with a genetic predisposition for a lower IQ
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23
Q

Gibson and Walk: aim

A

To Investigate the age at which young children start to show the ability to use visual stimuli to be able to discriminate depth and the recording of receding distance. They wanted to show support for the idea that humans and other species depth perception is innate and therefore they know not to crawl or walk over a visual cliff end

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24
Q

Gibson and Walk: research method

A

Lab experiment

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25
Q

Gibson and Walk: experimental design

A

Repeated measures

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26
Q

Gibson and Walk: independent variable

A

Whether the young child was called by its mother from the cliff side or the shallow side of the visual cliff apparatus

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27
Q

Gibson and Walk: dependent variable

A

Whether or not the child would crawl to its mother

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28
Q

Gibson and Walk: animal research method

A

Quasi lab experiment

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29
Q

Gibson and Walk: animal independent variable

A

The species that were observed

30
Q

Gibson and Walk: animal dependent variable

A

Whether the animal preferred the shallow or deep side of the visual cliff apparatus

31
Q

Gibson and Walk: participants

A

36 young children or infants between 6 months and 14 months old and their mothers

32
Q

Gibson and Walk: animal participants

A

Chicks, turtles, rats, lambs, kids, pigs, kittens, dogs

33
Q

Gibson and Walk: procedure

A
  • Board laid across a large sheet of heavy glass which was supported approx one foot off the ground. One side of the board was a sheet of patterned material which was visible underneath the glass making it a solid surface, on the other side was the same material one foot below the glass creating a drop (visual cliff)
  • Child was placed in the centre and the mother would call from the shallow or cliff side, reactions were observed
  • A number of control experiments using animals were conducted to ensure that the visual cliff apparatus was appropriate and not biased in any way.
  • Gibson and Walk tried to determine which of the two visual cues played a decisive role in depth perception (distance cue or motion parallax)
  • Removed the distance cue (pattern density) by increasing the size and spacing of the pattern elements on the deep or cliff side of in proportion to its distance from the eye
  • placed the patterned material directly against the glass on either side of the board but smaller and more densely spaced pattern elements were used on the deep or cliff side.
34
Q

Gibson and Walk: qualitative results for humans

A
  • All 27 infants who crawled off the board, crawled out on the shallow side at least once
  • 11% (3 children) who moved off the board crawled off the cliff side
  • Some children cried when their mothers stood on the cliff side due to thinking they couldn’t reach their mother
  • Some children patted the glass with their hands but despite reassurance it was solid, they did not venture onto it
35
Q

Gibson and Walk: qualitative data animals

A
  • From 24 hours old chicks hopped off the board on the shallow side
  • Kids and lambs tested as soon as they could stand, never stepped onto the cliff side
  • Kids and goats would move freely on the apparatus when the pattern was immediately beneath the glass but when the optical floor was more than a foot below the glass they would freeze in a defensive posture
  • Rats showed little preference to the shallow side as long as they could feel the edge of the glass with their whiskers they showed good visual depth discrimination with 95-100% getting off the board using the shallow side
  • Dark reared kittens at 27 days old crawled or fell of the centre board equally often on both cliff and shallow sides, once exposed to the light they were performing ‘normally’
36
Q

Gibson and Walk: conclusions

A
  • Children have depth perception from when they are able to crawl, and develops before locomotor abilities
  • Depth perception in animals is evident from an earlier age as their locomotion is adequate earlier, even from birth, and that depth perception in chicks, kids, goats and kittens appears rapidly
  • The ability to perceive depth in kittens and rats is aided by their whiskers, and rats and chicks are able to discriminate depth by motion alone.
37
Q

Wood: aim

A

To examine some of the major implications of the interactive, instructional relationships between the developing child and their tutor for the study of skill acquisition and problem solving in different age groups

38
Q

Wood: research method

A

Controlled observation in an artificial environment and Harvard University

39
Q

Wood: participants

A

30 children who took part in this study and lived within a 5 mile radius of Cambridge, Massachusetts

40
Q

Wood: how were participants recruited?

A

Parents replied to an advertisement for children to take part in the study and accompanied their children

41
Q

Wood: procedure (task)

A
  • A toy was used that had 21 blocks that made up a standing pyramid with 6 levels. Each layer was made up with equal sized blocks apart from the top, blocks had a shallow round depression in its base and a matched elevation on top, can only be formed if put together correctly
  • Each child entered the experimental room where they were then seated at a table with the blocks on, they were then told that they could play with the blocks and left to play for 5 minutes to become familiar with both the blocks and the new situation
  • Tutor recognised and responded systematically to 3 responses:
    1) If ignored, tutor would repeat the presentation of blocks
    2) If children tried to make blocks themselves but overlooked a key feature, tutor would verbally draw attention to the fact it was not complete
    3) Tutor would correct the child if they tried to make the blocks
42
Q

Wood: procedure (scoring)

A
  • Child scored on assembling pieces, whether assisted or unassisted by a tutor
  • When the structures did not meet the task brief the researchers noted whether the child rejected them or just assembled them incorrectly.
  • Every intervention was noted and classified in one of three categories;
    1) Direct assistance where they presented or specifically indicated the materials for assembly
    2) A verbal error prompt
    3) A straightforward verbal attempt to get the child to make more contractions
  • After each intervention, childs behaviour was scored into the categories and inter-rater reliability was utilised in this study as two researchers observed the children’s behaviour and worked independently to score it
  • Achieved 94% agreement on a pool of 594 event scores seen on video tape
43
Q

Wood: qualitative results

A
  • The total number of times that children manipulated the blocks was similar for each age group
  • It took 15 its to make a correct pyramid and more than 75% of these acts were unassisted in 5 year olds compared to 50% in 4 year olds and 10% in 3 year olds
  • 3 year olds took apart as many block constructions as they put together whereas 4 and 5 year olds were less likely to do this
44
Q

Wood: qualitative results regarding tutoring

A
  • Younger children needed more help; 3 year olds managed 64.5% unassisted constructions compared to 79.3% in 4 year olds and 87.5% in 5 year olds
  • 3 year olds paid little attention to verbal instructions by the tutor
  • Tutor intervened twice as often with 3 year olds than with 4 year olds and four times more often than with 5 year olds
  • Tutor telling children children what to do was successful more often with older children (57% with 5 year olds, 18% with 3 year olds)
45
Q

Wood: analysis with tutor roles

A
  • In 487 opportunities the tutor conformed to the pre-set rules 86% of the time, most frequently with the youngest children (92%) compared to older children (86%)
  • Majority of errors of 4 year olds was due to the tendency to offer more help than she was supposed to
  • It was often hard to get 3 year olds to engage with and stay focused on the task but it was easier to see what the child had done in response to instructions given
46
Q

Wood: roles of the tutor in scaffolding

A
  • Recruitment: getting the child interested in the task
  • Reduction of degrees of freedom: simplifying the task and breaking it down into steps
  • Direction maintenance: keeping the child on task
  • Making critical features: mark out relevant features of the task and identify the difference between what the child has already achieved and the correct outcome
  • Frustration control: employ strategies to make problem solving less stressful
  • Demonstration: model the correct outcome
47
Q

Wood: conclusions

A
  • As age increases so does the ability to solve problems and deal with more complex sequences of actions
  • This supports the idea that children can recognise the appropriate solution to a problem before they are able to produce it
  • Older children are more likely to accept and act on advice from tutors, their role with 4 year olds was to prod and correct whereas with 5 year olds it was more confirmation and checking that they were doing the right thing
  • Effectiveness of the tutoring process is dependent on the tutor and tutee modifying their behaviour over time to fit the requirements and suggestions of others
48
Q

Ainsworth and Bell: aim

A

To investigate attachment and exploration behaviours in babies using the strange situation

49
Q

Ainsworth and Bell: research method

A

Controlled observation used where the babies behaviour through a one way mirror in an adjoining room whilst they took part in the strange situation

50
Q

Ainsworth and Bell: participants

A

56 white middle class babies who were living with their biological families took part in the study

51
Q

Ainsworth and Bell: how were the participants recruited

A

Through paediatricians in private practices in America

52
Q

Ainsworth and Bell: procedure

A
  • Made up of 8 episodes which were used in a standardised order, designed for babies explore but not be strange causing them to respond fearfully and increase the attachment behaviour shown. - - Stanger condition was gradual so that fear was attributed to the person being unfamiliar rather than the babies being alarmed
  • Least disturbing situations came first before a gradual increase, however no more disturbing than that of real life
  • Two observers used to take notes in written form or dictated narratives into a dual channel tape recorder
  • Any information was transcribed and coded (inter rate reliability was established for movement, manipulatory and visual exploration and crying)
  • When scoring on the 7 point scale, score was influences by strength of behaviour, frequency, duration and latency by the type of behaviour itself
53
Q

Ainsworth and Bell: qualitative results

A

Overall the babies showed little sign of alarm in the stages before they were separated from their mothers, and that at this stage their attachment behaviour had not been activated but used the mother as a secure base to explore the strange situation from

54
Q

Ainsworth and Bell: changes in exploratory behaviour

A
  • In stage 3 where the stranger was present, there was a sharp decline in exploratory behaviour which continued into stage 4
  • In stage 5, visual and manipulatory exploarations increased greatly with the reintroduction of the mother and her attempts to interst the baby again
  • Attempts to engage the baby in stage 4 and 7 were ineffective
  • Least exploratory behaviours were seen in stage 7 where the baby was alone and the stranger came into the room
  • In stage 2 the baby looked at the toys and other aspects of the physical environment more frequently than at the mother, only glancing at her occasionally, however in stage 3 where the stranger was present they were looked at more than the toys but the mother was not looked at any more frequently than in stage 2
55
Q

Ainsworth and Bell: crying behaviour

A

Strange situation itself did not alarm baby as there was only minimal crying in stage 2 and 3, there was very little increase in crying when a stranger was introduced and the mother was present. However, more crying in stage 4 when the mother left the room and the declined when she returned. Crying increased sharply in stage 6 and 7 suggesting the absence of the mother distressed the baby

56
Q

Ainsworth and Bell: search behaviour during separation

A

Search behaviours were moderate in stages 4 and 7, and strongest in stage 6 but search behaviour did not seem to relate to crying. 37% of babies cried minimally in stage 6 but searched strongly, whereas 20% cried desperately but searched weakly or not at all

57
Q

Ainsworth and Bell: proximity seeking and contact maintaining behaviours

A
  • Babies efforts to regain contact, proximity and interaction with the mother occurred weakly in stages 2 and 3 but increased greatly by separation experiences.
  • Contact maintaining behaviour rose after stage 5 where the mother and baby were reunited, and again rose sharply in stage 8 (the second reunion).
58
Q

Ainsworth and Bell: contact resisting and proximity avoiding behaviours

A
  • Babies rarely showed contact resisting behaviour toward the mother, it was only demonstrated in rare instances in the pre-separation stages as the mother had been told not to participate unless responding to their babies demands.
  • One third of the babies observed avoided the stranger during episode 3
59
Q

Ainsworth and Bell: conclusions

A
  • The presence of the mother encourages babies to explore strange situations rather than avoiding them, whereas the absence of the mother (or caregiver) heightens attachment behaviour and lessens exploration of strange situations.
  • Attachment is affected by the conditions the child is in, increasing in situations where there is a perceived threat
  • Attachment behaviour may lessen or disappear during prolonged absences but will reappear in a strong manner upon reunion with the mother or caregiver.
60
Q

Johnson and Young: aim

A

To provide a critical examination of discourse in TV commercials made fora and upmarket to children to determine the degree to which the language codes that are used call upon gender as a meaningful cultural category for selling

61
Q

Johnson and Young: research method

A

Content analysis to study advertisements

62
Q

Johnson and Young: two research questions

A

1) Do advertisers script language differently for males and females in adverts directed to preschool and early elementary school boys and girls?
2) How is gender used in discourse code to link products to gender roles?

63
Q

Johnson and Young: partcipants

A

No physical participants as content analysis was used. Samples of children’s television programmes in the cartoon genre were recorded from commercial networks, regional independent New England stations and Nickelodeon in the autumn of 1996, 1997 and 1999

64
Q

Johnson and Young: total number of adverts shown and the years

A 
Total = 478 
1996 = 149
1997 = 133
1999 = 196
65
Q

Johnson and Young: procedure

A
  • Researchers recorded adverts on different types of TV to analyse
  • Adverts were classified into one of five product categories; food, toys, educational and public service announcements, recreational facilities, and video or movie promotions
  • The toy adverts were categorised by their target audience; boys, girls and both boys and girls as both genders were features or there was no gender content
  • This process of categorising the adverts was based on the gender of the children portrayed in the advertisement rather than the nature of the toy, and adverts oriented to one gender or the other were categorised as such even if a child of the other gender was seen in the background or for a short period
66
Q

Johnson and Young: five categories to distinguish types of verb elements that might be relevant in gender imaging

A

1) Action verbs e.g. fly, crawl, jump, race, throw
2) Competition/destructions verb elements e.g. crush, fie on, knocked out, pounce, slam, stomp
3) Agency/control verb element e.g. control, defeat, rule, take
4) Limited activity verb elements e.g. beware, get, go, know, look, talk, wait watch
5) Feeling and nurturing verb elements e.g. cuddles, loves, taking care of, tuck you in

67
Q

Johnson and Young: qualitative results

A

The results demonstrated the there were greater proportion of toy adverts shown in 1996 and 1997 (42.3% and 42.9% respectively) then in 1999 (34.7%). Overall toy adverts made up 39.3% of the sample

  • Boys included action figures and made up 37% of he boy oriented toys, whereas the most common category for girls were posable figures which made up 44% girl orientated toys
  • Male voice overs were used in every single one of the boy orientated advertisements, with 89% of girl orientated advertisements using girl voice overs
68
Q

Johnson and Young: boy orientated toys

A
  • Big time action hero
  • Best wars transformers
  • Mars attack action figures
  • Super man
  • War planets
  • Vortex power bat
69
Q

Johnson and Young: girl orientated toys

A
  • Take care of me twins
  • Girl talk
  • Star fairies
  • California roller girl
  • Tea bunnies
  • Bedtime bottle baby
  • Friend link
  • Potty dotty
70
Q

Johnson and Young: frequency of verb element type by gender orientation of commercial (boy:girl orientation)

A 
Action = 68:51
Competition/destruction = 113:9
Agency and control = 103:24
Limited activity = 151:268
Feelings/nurturing 0:66
71
Q

Johnson and Young: conclusion

A
  • Naming toys actively reinforces gender polarisation and direct attention to certain attributes of gender roles. The polarised gender models shown in adverts coupled with verbal images created for boys and girls use conventional gender concepts rather than minimising or challenging gender stereotyping.
  • When children watch television adverts they are shown verbal models that reinforce the language stereotype that girls and women engage in talk whilst boys and men prefer action to words. This

Psychology A level (8 decks)

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