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WSET Level 3 > C07 - Common Elements in Winemaking and Maturation > Flashcards

C07 - Common Elements in Winemaking and Maturation Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the next stage in winemaking after harvest?

A

The grapes are processed and prepared for alcoholic fermentation

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2
Q

On a basic level, what is alcoholic fermentation?

A

Yeast converts sugars in the grape to alcohol

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3
Q

What is the next basic stage of winemaking after alcoholic fermentation?

A

The wine needs to be stored prior to packaging and sale

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4
Q

Broadly speaking, what are natural wines?

A

Wines made with minimal intervention

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5
Q

Describe the seeds and stems of the grape

A

Both contain tannins | Seeds contain high levels of bitter oils

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6
Q

How are stems made available to the winemaker

A

By hand harvesting

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7
Q

Why is the grape skin important to the winemaker?

A

The skin and the area immediately underneath, contain high levels of flavor compounds (containing the grape’s signature character)It contains tannins
It contains color compounds

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8
Q

A large number of chemical compounds are classed as…

A

Tannin

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9
Q

Describe tannins at Véraison | How does this change?

A

They taste very bitter and astringent | As grapes ripen, bitterness and astringency fall

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10
Q

What is the Bloom of a grape?

A

The waxy surface that covers the skin of a grape | It contains yeast that can be used for fermentation

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11
Q

List the three major constituents of a grape’s pulp

A

Water
Sugar
Acid

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12
Q

What is the largest constituent of a grape’s pulp?

A

Water

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13
Q

What is the second largest constituent of a grape’s pulp?

A

Sugar

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14
Q

In order, what are the most abundant acids in a grape’s pulp?

A

Tartaric acid | Malic acid

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15
Q

Grape juice| Many of the component parts of a wine

A

Grape juice | Many of the component parts of a wine

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16
Q

What is oxidation?

A

Oxygen reacting with any component part of a wine

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17
Q

What is the biggest threat to a winemaker wanting their wine to be dominated by primary fruit characteristics?

A

Oxidation

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18
Q

Use of antioxidants such as Sulfur Dioxide| Keeping oxygen contact to a minimum

A

Use of antioxidants such as Sulfur Dioxide | Keeping oxygen contact to a minimum

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19
Q

Why might grapes be picked at night?

A

It is cooler and the effect of oxygen is reduced because chemical reactions occur more slowly at lower temperatures

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20
Q

How are grapes kept away from oxygen once they reach the winery? What is this process called?

A

By filling airtight winery equipment with carbon dioxide or nitrogen before they are used for grape processing or winemaking
Protective/anaerobic winemaking

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21
Q

What is the argument against anaerobic winemaking?

A

Some argue that the resultant wines may be bland or uninteresting and that a higher level of oxygen contact helps to develop complexity and character

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22
Q

…rarely if ever benefit from oxygen contact during maturation

A

Wines that have been protected from oxygen during winemaking

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23
Q

How are anaerobically made wines stored?

A

In inert airtight vessels which are kept completely full | The vats are made from stainless steel or cement lined with epoxy-resin

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24
Q

How are aerobically made wines usually stored?

A

In wooden vessels that are normally made of oak

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25
Q

Oak is…but it is not…

A

Watertight | Airtight

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26
Q

How does the mild oxygen permeability of oak help a wine?

A

It can help to soften tannins in red wines | Gives more flavour complexity

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27
Q

What happens to flavors in wine during deliberate oxidation/maturation?

A

Primary fruit flavors gradually fade | Tertiary characters start to develop, such as leather and earth

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28
Q

Other than flavor, how may a wine change as a result of oxidation?

A

Red wines become paler and gain a hint of brown | White wines become deeper in color and gain a hint of orange

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29
Q

How does barrel size affect the amount of oxidation a wine receives? Why?

A

Smaller barrels have a greater oxidative effect | They present a proportionately larger surface area of wood to the wine

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30
Q

What two main factors influence the amount of deliberate oxidation a wine receives?

A

Size of vessel | Length of time stored in it

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31
Q

How large is a barrique?

A

225L

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32
Q

Wines are rarely kept in barriques for longer than…

A

Two years

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33
Q

How may the effect of barrel oxidation be further enhanced?

A

If the container is not completely full

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34
Q

Name three wines which are matured in barrels which are not completely full

A

Oloroso Sherry
Rutherglen Muscat
Tawny Port

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35
Q

What characters do wines which are deliberately aged take on?

A

Caramel, toffee and nuts

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36
Q

What may happen to a wine if it’s exposed to too much oxygen?

A

It can lose much of its fruit flavor and smell stale

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37
Q

What can happen to over-oxidized wine in extreme cases?

A

Bacteria can use the oxygen to turn the wine to vinegar

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38
Q

What are the main uses of Sulfur Dioxide in a winery?

A

Antioxidant effects | Antiseptic effects

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39
Q

Which element in winemaking can be toxic? How is this prevented?

A

Sulfur Dioxide | It is regulated by law

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40
Q

Which major element in winemaking can cause allergic reactions, even at low levels?

A

Sulfur Dioxide

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41
Q

Why might a quality-conscious winemaker want to keep SO2 levels as low as possible?

A

It can make wines seem harsh and lacking in fruit

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42
Q

When used as an antioxidant, why must SO2 levels be constantly monitored?

A

By protecting wine from oxidation, SO2 becomes ‘bound’ and can have no further protective use

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43
Q

Is SO2 toxic to the principal fermentative yeast involved in winemaking?

A

No, this strain is resistant to certain levels of SO2

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44
Q

Why is SO2 effective as an antioxidant?

A

It is toxic to the many strains of yeast and bacteria that can cause unwanted flavors in wine

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45
Q

The majority of wooden vessels used in winemaking are made of…

A

Other than oxygen, what can oak ageing give to a wine?

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46
Q

Other than oxygen, what can oak ageing give to a wine?

A

Tannins | Flavors

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47
Q

What does oak-tannin give to a wine?

A

Structure/textural complexity

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48
Q

What kind of flavors can oak give to a wine?

A

Toast
Vanilla
Smoke
Cloves

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49
Q

What is a particular challenge when using oak for maturation? Why?

A

Hygiene | It is particularly difficult to keep wooden vessels free of yeasts, bacteria and molds

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50
Q

Why may a winemaker use different types of vessel during maturation?

A

As oak vessels differ widely in their characteristics| To enhance complexity in their wines

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51
Q

…oak has broadly similar characteristics no matter which country it’s from

A

European

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51
Q

Describe why species of oak is an important factor in flavor characteristics

A

Flavor can change, even within a species of oak

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51
Q

What are the four major factors to consider when choosing oak for maturation?

A

Species and origin of oak
Size
Production of oak barrels
Age

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52
Q

Where is some of the finest oak considered to be from?

A

Some forests in France

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53
Q

What is a 228L barrel known as?

A

Pièce

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54
Q

How large can wine maturation vessels get?

A

More than 2000L

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55
Q

What is one of the most important procedures when it comes to how a barrel affects the flavor of a wine?

A

Toasting

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56
Q

How are the barrel’s staves prepared so they can be bent into shape?

A

They are heated

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57
Q

What secondary effects does the heating of a barrel’s staves have?

A

It transforms the tannins and the flavor compounds in oak

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58
Q

What flavors are newly produced by a barrel once it is toasted?

A

Sweet spice | Toast

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59
Q

What does ‘level of toasting’ refer to in the making of a barrel?

A

The temperature and length of heat exposure

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60
Q

What affects the flavors a barrel can give to a wine?

A

The level of toasting

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61
Q

What happens each time a barrel is used?

A

The effect of toasting diminishes

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62
Q

Why might a winemaker not use new oak?

A

In order to make a wine with subtler oak flavors

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63
Q

How else may oak flavors and tannins be added to a wine, other than using barrels? What is the advantage of doing this?

A

By using oak staves or oak chips| It’s cheaper

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64
Q

How may the oxidative effects of barrel ageing be replicated?

A

By adding small, controlled quantities of oxygen to the wine vessel

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65
Q

What is an inert wine vessel?

A

It does not add flavor to the wine or allow oxidation

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66
Q

What are the majority of inert winery vessels made from?

A

Stainless steel or concrete

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67
Q

What can inert winery vessels be used for?

A

Fermentation | Temporary storage of wine after it is finished

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68
Q

What are most modern winery vessels made from?

A

Stainless steel

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69
Q

List the advantages of stainless steel as a winery vessel

A

Easy to keep clean
Can be made into any shape and size
Can incorporate temperature control mechanisms

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70
Q

What are the two main types of temperature control mechanisms?

A

Sleeves on the outside of the vessels | Internal coils through which cold or hot liquid can be circulated

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71
Q

What are concrete vessels usually lined with? What does this do?

A

Epoxy resin | It’s inert and provides a waterproof barrier

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72
Q

What was commonly used before stainless steel vessels?

A

Concrete vessels

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73
Q

What are the disadvantages of concrete vessels over stainless steel?

A

They can be less easy to clean and maintain

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74
Q

Why might some winemakers prefer concrete vessels?

A

The thick concrete shells help to regulate temperature during fermentation and maturation without the need for expensive equipment

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75
Q

Name a wine vessel which is not steel or concrete…

A

Glass bottles

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76
Q

When do grapes usually use their first dose of SO2?

A

When they arrive at the winery

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77
Q

Besides receiving SO2, what else may happen to wine grapes during reception?

A

They may be individually checked and sorted for unripe and rotten grapes

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78
Q

What is the next possible stage after grape reception?

A

Destemming and crushing

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79
Q

What does crushing do?

A

It breaks the skin of the grapes and liberates a quantity of juice

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80
Q

What is the liquid product of crushing called?

A

Free run juice

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81
Q

What is the danger when crushing grapes?

A

If the seeds are crushed, they will release bitter oils and tannin

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82
Q

What does pressing do?

A

It separates the liquid and solid constituents of the grape

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82
Q

Why are modern pressing techniques designed to be gentle?

A

As with crushing, to avoid crushing the seeds

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83
Q

What is the traditional design of grape presses?

A

They were all vertical

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84
Q

How does a vertical press work? What is a traditional vertical press called?

A

The pressure on the grapes comes from above, using a screw or lever
A basket press

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85
Q

Name a wine producing region which is still particularly known for its vertical presses

A

Champagne

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86
Q

Describe a pneumatic press

A

An inflatable rubber tube within a perforated, horizontal stainless steel cylinder

87
Q

What does a pneumatic press allow that a vertical press does not?

A

It’s possible to apply pressure over a larger area in a controllable way

88
Q

Why are some presses built within a closed tank?

A

So that the amount of oxygen in contact with the juice is kept to a minimum

89
Q

What is it important to be aware of regarding the juice which is pressed?

A

Liquid released at the start of pressing is very different to liquid released at the end

90
Q

What are fractions?

A

Different pressings of grape juice/wine

91
Q

What may be done with different ‘fractions’?

A

They may treated individually and blended in different proportions to create a certain style

92
Q

When may adjustments take place?

A

Before, during or after fermentation

93
Q

How is grape juice commonly referred to?

A

Must

94
Q

What is the term for the level of sugar in grape juice?

A

Must weight

95
Q

How may sugar be increased in a wine? What is it called?

A

By adding Rectified Concentrated Grape Must| Enrichment

96
Q

What is Rectified Concentrated Grape Must?

A

A colorless, odorless, syrupy liquid

97
Q

At what stage may a must be enriched?

A

Before or during fermentation

98
Q

Which wine adjustment is banned in many parts of the world?

A

Enrichment

99
Q

What may happen to a wine if the process of enrichment is abused?

A

It may become hard and thin | Because there are insufficient flavors to balance the artificially elevated alcohol

100
Q

What is chaptalisation?

A

Where sugar from sources other than grapes is added as a form of enrichment

101
Q

Other than enrichment, how else may alcohol levels be raised in a must/wine?

A

By removing water from the must

102
Q

What are the disadvantages of removing water to concentrate sugar/alcohol?

A

As well as sugar, it concentrates tannins, acids, flavor compounds and faults
It reduces volume too

103
Q

Name an adjustment which is very difficult

A

Removing sugar

104
Q

Can alcohol be removed from wine?

A

Yes, after fermentation is complete

105
Q

Where is acidification permitted?

A

In Europe, only in warmer countries | In many hot countries around the world

106
Q

How is acid usually increased in a wine?

A

By the addition of tartaric acid in powder form

107
Q

How may a wine be de-acidified?

A

By the addition of an alkali

108
Q

What are the inputs and outputs of fermentation?

A

Sugar and yeast | Alcohol and CO2

109
Q

What are the ‘other’ by-products of fermentation?

A

Heat and flavor compounds

110
Q

Which yeast species is responsible for the majority of wine fermentation? Why is this used?

A

Saccharomyces cerevisiae | Due to its tolerance of relatively high alcohol levels and SO2

111
Q

What is the minimum temperature at which fermentation can begin?

A

5C

112
Q

At what point does fermentation naturally stop?

A

When all the sugar has been consumed

113
Q

What may stop fermentation before all sugar has been consumed?

A

Yeast run out of nutrients
Temperature reaches over 35C
Combination of high sugar and alcohol

114
Q

What may happen to fermentation if sugar levels are very high?

A

Fermentation may not even start

115
Q

Broadly speaking, how may a winemaker deliberately halt fermentation?

A

By killing yeast | By removing yeast

116
Q

How may yeast be killed?

A

Adding SO2 | Adding grape spirit

117
Q

Describe how a winemaker may remove yeast?

A

By temporarily halting fermentation, by chilling the must to below 5C
By filtering the yeast out

118
Q

What are the two important ways in which a winemaker may control fermentation?

A

Choice of yeast | Temperature management

119
Q

What is the advantage of using ambient yeast strains?

A

It can produce complex flavors in the final wine

119
Q

What are the two yeast choices a winemaker has?

A

Whether to use the ambient yeast strains on the grape bloom, or adding cultured strains to the must

120
Q

What is the disadvantage of using ambient yeast strains?

A

The winemaker cannot control exactly which yeast strains are present
There may be some variation between batches of grapes

120
Q

What are commercially available yeasts?

A

Strains of S. Cerevisiae that have been specifically selected because they consistently perform and produce attractive flavors

121
Q

What is a potential argument against using cultured yeasts?

A

That it can limit the potential complexity of the wine

122
Q

What is achieved by fermenting at lower temperatures?

A

It avoids the loss of most volatile aromas (which often have a floral character)It can encourage the development of fruity aromas in white wines

123
Q

Why is temperature management important in the winery?

A

Because if fermenting wine becomes too hot, yeast are killed| By controlling temperature, the winemaker can influence the wine’s flavors

124
Q

What is achieved by fermenting at higher temperatures?

A

This is necessary for the extraction of colour and tannins from black grape skins

125
Q

Why is temperature control during fermentation easier now than it was?

A

Many vats have their own heating/refrigeration systems

126
Q

Other than automatically, how may excess heat be releases during fermentation?

A

By pumping over

127
Q

Name a winemaking technique which has been pivotal in quality and consistency of modern winemaking

A

Precise temperature control

128
Q

When does malolactic fermentation usually take place?

A

Once alcoholic fermentation has finished

129
Q

What happens during MLF?

A

Lactic acid bacteria convert tart malic grape acid into softer lactic acid

129
Q

What does MLF broadly do?

A

Softens and reduces acidity
Creates buttery flavors
Produces CO2

129
Q

What carries out MLF?

A

Lactic acid bacteria

130
Q

How may MLF be encouraged??

A

By raising the temperature of the wine and not adding SO2

131
Q

How may MLF be avoided?

A

Through storage at cool temperatures
Use of SO2
By filtering out the bacteria

132
Q

Why may wine appear cloudy after fermentation? What becomes of this effect?

A

Due to the presence of dead yeast cells and grape fragments | The offending particles are usually heavy enough to fall to the bottom of the vessel within a few hours

133
Q

What is the sediment that falls to the bottom of the vessel after fermentation?

A

Gross lees

134
Q

What is the result of gross lees are not removed?

A

Unpleasant aromas can develop in the wine

135
Q

What are fine lees?

A

Smaller particles in the wine after fermentation (which settle more slowly)

136
Q

How are fine lees removed?

A

They are removed gradually during the wine maturation process

137
Q

Why may a winemaker not want to remove the fine lees during pre-bottle maturation?

A

To add extra flavors and a richer texture to the wine

138
Q

Why may a wine be bottled after only a few months?

A

The winemaker may want to preserve as many primary fruit aromas as possible

139
Q

What is the most important factor in determining how well a wine will survive medium to long-term ageing?

A

It needs to have flavors that will develop in an interesting way

140
Q

Give an example of a premium wine which is only matured for a short time, in inert vessels before bottling

A

Premium Australian Riesling

141
Q

What changes can occur during pre-bottling maturation?

A

The vessel can affect the wine’s flavors by adding oak flavors or allowing the wine to oxidize
Over time, wine components can react with each other, altering flavor or balance (and sometimes creating sediment in the vessel, which is periodically removed)

142
Q

When does blending take place?

A

It can take place at any stage during winemaking

143
Q

When does blending usually take place?

A

After fermentation or during maturation

144
Q

What may impede blending?

A

Local laws

144
Q

What is blending used to achieve?

A

Improve balance
Attain consistency
Achieve a certain style

145
Q

Give an example of when blending may be used to improve balance

A

When making red wine, free run wine may be blended with press wine to increase tannins in the final product

146
Q

Give an example of when blending may be used to achieve consistency

A

Wines matured in small barrels can develop in subtly different ways and may be blended together in a large vat to smooth out inconsistencies
Variations may arise due to differences in fruit (harvested at different times)Inconsistencies may arise during winemaking

147
Q

How may a winemaker go about achieving their ‘house style’

A

By creating as many blending options as possible during the winemaking process

148
Q

List some variations of blends that a winemaker may create

A

Separating press fractions
Fermenting/maturing in different vessels Allowing only a proportion to go through MLF
Using different grape varieties
Different vineyard plots
Different vintages

149
Q

Why may a wine not go through all clarification treatments?

A

Because some winemakers believe that some of the treatments may harm the character of the wine

150
Q

What are the three main techniques a winemaker may use to clarify a wine?

A

Sedimentation
Fining
Filtration

151
Q

What is racking?

A

Once the gross lees have settled in a deposit, the wine is gently pumped into another vessel, leaving the sediment behind

152
Q

How are fine lees dealt with after racking?

A

Racking may be repeated several times during maturation

153
Q

For some wines,…is the only clarification that will take place

A

Sedimentation and Racking

154
Q

What is the major disadvantage of natural sedimentation as a means of clarification?

A

It is very slow

155
Q

How may sedimentation be accelerated? What is the disadvantage of this?

A

By putting wine in a centrifuge | The equipment is very expensive

156
Q

What is fining?

A

It speeds up the process of deposits clumping together in a wine so that they can be removed

157
Q

How is fining performed?

A

By adding a fining agent to the wine and removing the clumps that appear

158
Q

Why may a winemaker not add a fining agent to a wine

A

Some winemakers believe it can adversely affect flavor and texture

158
Q

What is filtration?

A

A process that physically removes particles from a wine as it is passed through a filter

159
Q

When may filtration be performed?

A

After fermentation, during maturation and before bottling

160
Q

By adding a fining agent to the wine and removing the clumps that appear

A

Depth filtration | Surface filtration

161
Q

Describe the filters in depth filtration

A

They are made from a thick layer of material

162
Q

Describe depth filtration

A

As wine passes through the filter, the solid parts become trapped inside it

163
Q

What can depth filtration achieve?

A

It can handle very cloudy wines and remove gross lees

164
Q

Describe filters in surface filtration

A

They resemble very fine sieves

165
Q

How does surface filtration work?

A

Solid particles are trapped on the surface of the filter as wine passes through

166
Q

What are the disadvantages of surface filtration?

A

Filters are very expensive | Filters clog very easily

167
Q

How is the expense of surface filtration minimized?

A

By only using it after depth filtration

168
Q

When may sterile filtration be performed?

A

Just before bottling

169
Q

What is sterile filtration?

A

Where the pores in a surface filter are small enough to remove yeast cells and bacteria

170
Q

Why are some bottles unfiltered?

A
171
Q

When is a wine considered stable?
Why does this vary?

A

If over a specific time, it changes in a slow, predictable manner
The rate and amount of change deemed acceptable will vary from wine to wine

172
Q

Name a stabilization process and explain why it is considered to ‘stabilize’

A

Fining | It aims to produce a predictable outcome after bottling

173
Q

Other than fining, name three other important areas that require stabilization

A

Tartrate stability
Microbiological stability
Oxygen stability

174
Q

Why can tartaric acid crystals form in wine? What are they called?

A

Tartaric acid is less soluble in wine than in grape juice| Tartrates

175
Q

What do Tartrates look like?

A

Clear crystals in white wine| Purple crystals in red wine (stained by color compounds)

176
Q

What is the big disadvantage of Tartrates?

A

They spoil the appearance of the wine

177
Q

How is the formation of Tartrates accelerated?

A

In cool temperatures

178
Q

How may a winemaker force tartrate formation?

A

By chilling the wine to below 0C

179
Q

How are tartrate crystals removed?

A

Filtration

180
Q

Why are yeast and bacteria undesirable in wines?

A

They can spoil a wine and make it undrinkable

181
Q

Why is it important to keep equipment sterile from a microbiological perspective?

A

Undesirable microorganisms can thrive in grape and wine residues

182
Q

Which wines may not be at risk from microorganisms?

A

Fortified wines | Their alcohol levels are toxic for all microorganisms

183
Q

Name a non-fortified wine which is highly resistant to microbiological spoilage

A

A dry, high-acid wine that has undergone MLF

184
Q

Which wines are most prone to microbiological spoilage?

A

Low acid, low alcohol wines, which have not undergone MLF and have a little residual sugar

185
Q

How are more susceptible wines treated to prevent spoilage?

A

With SO2 | Sterile filtration

185
Q

How may oxidation risk be reduced in a wine?

A

Minimizing oxygen contact| Keeping SO2 topped up

186
Q

Name an extra measure a winemaker may take during packaging to minimize oxidation risk

A

The bottle may be flushed with CO2 or nitrogen before filling to eliminate oxygen

187
Q

What are the advantages of glass bottles?

A

Portable
Cheap
Quite strong
Oxygen impermeable
Do not impart flavors to wine

188
Q

What are the main disadvantages of glass bottles? Explain this

A

They are heavy and rigid
Weight adds to transport costs
Rigidity means it cannot be packed to make best use of the available space

189
Q

How are the disadvantages of glass bottles being counteracted?

A

Some producers are using lighter bottles | Some bottle in or closer to the destination country

190
Q

Apart from logistics, why is bottle rigidity a disadvantage?

A

It means that when half-full, the bottle will contain a space for air

191
Q

What is the main disadvantage of plastic bottles for wine?

A

They are slightly oxygen permeable and wines may lose their freshness within a matter of months

192
Q

What is the advantage of bag-in-box wines?| What is the disadvantage?

A

The bag collapses as wine is drunk, preventing air from entering
The plastic bag is still oxygen permeable

192
Q

Within what time period must a bag-in-box wine be consumed?

A

18 months

193
Q

What factors may dictate the type of closure which is used for a bottle?

A

Ease of use
Which closures a bottling line is designed to use
For bottles intended for maturation, it must allow the wine to mature positively

194
Q

What does an airtight closure allow?

A

Retention of fresh fruit flavors

195
Q

What does a slow release of oxygen allow in some wines?

A

The development of tertiary flavors

196
Q

Why may a winemaker not be able to choose their bottle closure?

A

It may be overridden by the preference of the consumer market

197
Q

What is the most widely used bottle closure?

A

Cork

198
Q

What is the major benefit of cork as a wine closure?

A

It allows very small amounts of oxygen to enter the wine, thus allowing the development of sometimes desired tertiary flavors

199
Q

What are the two problems with cork-closed wines?

A

The risk of cork-taint | Risk of oxidation

200
Q

What causes cork taint?

A

Trichloroanisole (TCA)

201
Q

What effect does TCA have on a wine?

A

Gives wine a moldy, cardboard-like aroma

202
Q

How are winemakers battling the risk of TCA?

A

By investing large sums in treatments designed to prevent its formation

203
Q

Hat are synthetic corks made from?

A

A form of plastic

204
Q

What is the disadvantage of synthetic corks as closures?

A

They are generally designed for wines intended for early consumption

205
Q

Who has championed the use of screw caps?

A

Producers from Australia and New Zealand

206
Q

What are the advantages of screw caps as closures?

A

They do not taint wine | They provide an impermeable seal from air

207
Q

What have trials shown about screw caps?

A

They preserve fruit flavor in wine longer than cork

208
Q

How has the disadvantage of screw caps as a closure been countered by some producers?

A

Some screw caps have been designed to have some oxygen permeability

209
Q

Within what time are the majority of wines best consumed?

A

One year

210
Q

What happens to wines not intended for ageing when kept in bottle for more than a year?

A

They lose their primary fruit flavors

211
Q

Give examples of wine styles which can mature in bottle for several years and are no at their best immediately after bottling

A

Vintage Port
The finest German Rieslings
Bordeaux Crus Classés

WSET Level 3 (27 decks)

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