Britain 1964-70 Flashcards
1
Q
What does Swinging mean?
A
greater freedom to engage in sexual and cultural activities
2
Q
What was Roy Jenkins Job?
A
Harold Wilson Home Sec
3
Q
What type of MP was Roy Jenkins?
A
Causalist MP
4
Q
What does Roy Jenkins ideals undermine?
A
The church
ie he said “make their own mistakes, and to decide, in an adult way”
5
Q
What did Roy Jenkins not want people to do?
A
Didn’t want people to have to follow rules in an unthinking way.
6
Q
What were the motives of a lot of the acts that Jenkins passed?
A
They produced practical benefits
- Ie less blackmailing
Fewer deaths from backstreet abortions
7
Q
What was pressure from the people like on passing the liberal acts like the Abortion act 1967?
A
Not much pressure from people to pass the acts, more top down to liberalise issues (some see it as more freeing, positive impact)
- Some resistance ie from people like Mary Whitehouse
8
Q
Why were the liberal acts of the 60’s sometimes seen as bad?
A
- ‘permissive’ (Marwick), Leading to divorce, drug culture as society allows for people to do whatever they won’t
- Greater freedoms lead to greater problems (divorce-> leads to harm to children, drug culture-> leads to drug addiction)
Davies believes Causalist MPs undermined boundaries
- Greater freedoms lead to greater problems (divorce-> leads to harm to children, drug culture-> leads to drug addiction)
9
Q
What social liberalisation happened in 1960?
A
Lady Chatterley’s Lover trial allowed publication of this ‘pornographic’ novel
10
Q
What anti social liberalisation happened in 1964?
A
Mary Whitehouse launches her Clean-Up TV campaign
11
Q
What social liberalisation happened in 1965?
A
Murder (Abolition of the Death Penalty) Act is passed. This initially suspends hanging for five years, before it is abolished in 1969
12
Q
What social liberalisation happened in 1967?
A
Sexual Offences Act legalises homosexual acts between men over the age of 21, in private, in England and Wales (not in Scotland until 1980, and in Northern Ireland until 1982)
Legalisation homosexuality acts between men in private over 21 (Scotland 1980, NI 1982)
Abortion Act legalises abortion during the first 28 weeks of pregnancy through the NHS.
Family Planning Act allows local health authorities to provide birth control devices. The contraceptive pill has been on sale since 1961
13
Q
What social liberalisation happened in 1968?
A
NHS can supply contraceptive devices like cap, pill already on sale (since 1961) but only to married women
14
Q
What social liberalisation happened in 1969?
A
Divorce Reform Act allows divorce to be granted after two years of separation if both parties want it, and after five years if one party wants it, on the grounds of ‘irreconcilable differences
15
Q
What were the social movements of the sixties that had change/liberalisation?
A
- Women (divorce, contraception, abortion, attitudes to sex)
- Sexuality (homosexuality, censorship)
- Crime (death penalty, suicide)
- Media, including backlash against permissiveness in media
- Fashion
- Culture (music, film, theatre)
-Education - Race/immigration
16
Q
What were Key events, legislation, statistics on Women (divorce, contraception, abortion, attitudes to sex) in the 60s?
A
1967: Abortion Act legalises abortion during first 28 weeks of pregnancy through NHS. Previously dangerous back street abortions took place which caused 40 deaths and 100,000 injuries in 1966.
1967: Family Planning Act allows local health authority to provide birth control devices. The contraceptive pill was first prescribed by British doctors in 1961 but only to married women. By 1964 480,000 women were taking the pill.
1969: Divorce Reform Act allows a divorce after 2 years of separation if both people want it and after five years if one person does.
17
Q
How is significant was the change in the 60s regarding Women (divorce, contraception, abortion, attitudes to sex)?
A
Most people continued to have conservative attitudes towards divorce.
The main change in attitudes towards sex before marriage were that young people were more tolerant than previous generations.
18
Q
What were Key events, legislation, statistics on Sexuality (homosexuality, censorship) in the 60s?
A
1957 - Wolfenden Committee Report recommends the liberalisation of laws that made homosexuality illegal
1967 - Sexual Offences Act legalises homosexual acts between men over the age of 21, in private, in England and Wales (not in Scotland until 1980, and in Northern Ireland until 1982)
Laws like the 1967 Abortion Act and 1967 Sexual Offences Act were passed in a more practical sense rather than based on moral ethics (ie looking at deaths due to backstreet abortions as a constant issue needing to be fixed, than a moral issue-> 40 deaths, 100,000 injuries in 1966)
60’s= seen as a time of ‘sexual revolution’
By 1964, around 480,000 women were taking the pill
Surveys like Schofield’s ‘The Sexual Behaviour of Young People’ found only 17% of girls and 33% of boys had had sex by the age of 19
More sexualisation on TV- ie more suggestive clothing and behaviour but no sex on tv ie Pussy Galore, Bond Girl
19
Q
How is significant was the change in the 60s regarding Sexuality (homosexuality, censorship)?
A
While laws changed, people’s attitudes did not necessarily adapt
Polls from the later 1960s showed that people did not adjust to or accept the more relaxed laws
The law was not the result of pressure from constituents but their own beliefs
Young people became more tolerant to sex before marriage, but statistically it wasn’t actually acted upon by the majority of teenagers- less so a popular revolution
People consistently revealed they didn’t welcome homosexuality throughout the population
20
Q
What were Key events, legislation, statistics on Media, including backlash against permissiveness in media in the 60s?
A
- 1954 - Television Act passed, gives ITV a license to broadcast for 10 years
- 1955 - 14 independent companies allowed to begin broadcasting television funded by advertising, breaking the BBC’s monopoly.
- 1960 - Committee of Inquiry on Broadcasting set up to assess the impact of television and to make recommendations for the future.
- 1962 - Pilkington Report from aforementioned committee delivered - generally supported more regulation of television
- Foreign (especially American) programs eroded British culture and made people more violent
- Advertising would commercialise British culture and make British people material
- Emphasised the need for quality drama on television - resulted in the production of plays such as Up the Junction and Cathy Come Home (social realist)
- Many findings ignored by government
- 1964 - Television Act increases the power of the Independent Television Authority
- ITV required to screen 2 plays and 2 current affairs program per week
- 1964 - BBC 2 established
- By 1969, 95% of households owned a television. In 1950, it was just 4%.
- 1954 Television Act: ITV was given a license to broadcast for 10 years.
- In July 1960, the government set up a Committee of Inquiry on Broadcasting to assess the impact of television.
- 1964 Television Act: ITV had to screen 2 extra plays and current affairs programmes per week. BBC 2 was created.
- The BBC banned screenings of The War Game (1965) until 1980.
- In January 1964, Mary Whitehouse started the Clean-Up TV campaign, and she renamed it to the NVLA in 1965. It was essentially created to pressure the BBC into becoming more “Christian”.
1962: Colour supplements were introduced to newspapers to promote increased circulation.
21
Q
How is significant was the change in the 60s regarding Media, including backlash against permissiveness in media?
A
With the introduction of ITV and almost everyone having access to a TV by the end of the decade, regulation (despite most social aspects becoming more liberal) became stricter, particularly against shows that were deemed as “bad influences” on the population. ITV gameshows were criticised for being too American, though there was nothing obscene or wrong with the actual content.
Legacy media (i.e. newspapers) slowly became replaced with television bulletins - 5 national newspapers stopped printing shortly after 1960. Papers still had an impact though - Private Eye (though a satire publication) exposed the Profumo affair, which led Labour MPs to force the statement in the house, which was then proven to be a lie, etc.
22
Q
What were Key events, legislation, statistics on Crime (death penalty, suicide) in the 60s?
A
1961 - Suicide Act means that those who fail to kill themselves will no longer be prosecuted.
1965 - Murder (Abolition of the Death Penalty) Act is passed. This initially suspends hanging for five years, before it is abolished in 1969. Only 18% of people supported abolition in 1966.
23
Q
How is significant was the change in the 60s regarding Crime (death penalty, suicide)?
A
Evidently, there was not widespread support for the abolition of the death penalty, with Peter Hitchens labelling it as “a victory for the elite over the people”. It was a very significant change, with Peter Allen and Gwynne Jones being the last people to be hanged in Britain in August 1964. Dominic Sandbrook doesn’t believe the Swinging Sixties led to a change in attitudes regarding a permissive society amongst ordinary people.
24
Q
What were Key events, legislation, statistics on Fashion in the 60s?
A
New fashions such as Op Art and ‘the Look’ inspired by designers such as
Mary Quant, with boutiques in London and made available around the country in high streets (mass produced) meant that it became harder to distinguish a woman’s class based on her fashion. Barbara Hulanicki’s ‘Biba’ sold cheap clothes by mail. The most famous model of the Era, Twiggy, said that Mary Quant’s clothes were for ‘rich girls’ and Biba was for ‘anyone’.
Fashion was always advertised, and with colour newspapers and new photographers was exciting.
But newspapers aren’t truly what caused the boom, instead the air of affluence, consumerism , confidence of youth and changing role of women. People were divided on the miniskirt.
25
How is significant was the change in the 60s regarding Fashion?
Growth in Industry
26
What were Key events, legislation, statistics on Culture (music, film, theatre) in the 60s?
- 1960 - Committee of Inquiry on Broadcasting
- 1964 Television Act
- 'Double Your Money', 'Take Your Pick' both ran from 55-68.
- 1960 - 'Coronation Street' launched.
- 1962 - 'That Was the Week that Was'
- Between 1954-1964, Cinema admissions fell by approx. 270%.
1956 - 'Look Back in Anger'
27
How is significant was the change in the 60s regarding Culture (music, film, theatre)?
- 64 Act made ITV broadcast 2 plays a week and the news to fill their obligation to public service.
- As a result of the Committee's reports and emphasis on the need for higher quality drama, demand for plays from British playwrights increased. 'The Wednesday Play' launched the careers of people such as Dennis Potter and Nell Dunn.
- Radio helped to blur class divisions and the broadcast of public leisure pursuits such as dog racing for the working class and tennis for the middle classes meant that all people could watch similar programmes in their own homes.
- Spread of American culture through television such as Westerns raised concerns that people would grow more violent as a result.
- Writers started producing 'socialist realist' plays.
- By the mid-60s. The production of plays began to evolve from broadcast theatre productions to being more on location.
- 'The War Game' about a nuclear attack on Britain was banned due to being too violent / horrific for 1960s viewers.
- The Beatles and the Rolling Stones were popular rock musicians.
- 'Coronation Street' represented genuine working class culture and aspirations of social advancement. It grew to be exceptionally popular in the north of England.
- 'That Was The Week That Wads' [TW3] represented the peak of the boom of satire. It featured comedians from 'Beyond the Fringe', a revue stage show, such as Peter Cook. It peaked at 12mn viewers per week. It made journalists less deferential to politicians and paved the way for investigative journalism.
- 'Look Back in Anger' was one of the first examples of a true 'kitchen sink drama'. Many working class people did not enjoy such drama, preferring lighter comedies and Kitchen Sink Dramas typically were more representative of middle class views about national decline.
- Bond films prospered due to the international context of the Cold War and a British obsession with spies.
28
What is Social Mobility?
ability to move social class (mainly working class to middle class in terms of their job)
29
What is a Meritocracy?
similar phenomenon to social mobility meaning when someone can progress and improve due to their merits and skills rather than their social standing (ie a working class person can get a job instead of a middle class person because they are smarter)
30
Why is a meritocracy not desirable?
- May not be happy as it becomes all about achievements
- People in low paid jobs feel that is all they deserve as their talents are so low
31
What was general consensus about Meritocracy in the 60s?
most people in favour of meritocracy, many MPs also in favour
32
How does education link to social mobility and class?
- The more middle class/office type jobs-> the more swinging people might be
33
How does the level that people swung in the 60s (ie became more socially liberal) change with class/job?
People move socially and tend to become more swinging (ie from working class to middle class office job, broadened horizons, less conservative)
34
Who was Anthony Crosland?
Cabinet as Secretary of State for Education and Science (1965–1967)
35
What campaign did Crosland play a role in from June 1960?
Campaign for Democratic Socialism
36
What is the Campaign for Democratic Socialism
right-wing grassroots group within the Labour Party, created, in part, as a response to the debates around the Left's advocacy of Unilateral nuclear disarmament and Clause IV
37
What is Clause IV?
pro nationalisation section of Labour’s beliefs
38
How did Crosland feel about Social Mobility?
He supported it
39
How did Harold Wilson feel about Meritocracy?
thought a meritocratic society would be an economically thriving one, based on scientific and creative innovation.
40
How did Crosland believe he could help social mobility increase?
Believed social mobility would be increased if secondary moderns, grammars and technical schools were replaced with comprehensive schools.
41
What did Crosland do to increase social mobility?
Passed Circular 10/65 which encouraged local councils to go down this path by giving them extra money. By 1979 over 90% of pupils were in comprehensive school.
42
Did absolute social mobility rise in the 1960s and early 1970s, and why?
Yes, social mobility did increase due to education
As secondary education had become compulsory in 1945, therefore by the 60s more people were going to secondary school
More inter-class marriages (more people moved up from working class to higher classes)
Beginning of deindustrialisation- less manual jobs available, people from the working class began to take previously only middle class jobs (ie office jobs, non manual jobs) and move up classes (increase in social mobility)
Proportion of population in heavy industrial job (mining agricultural labour decreases every year
43
Was Crosland's comprehensivisation a positive?
Open University 1969
- New higher education institution
- Enabled previously unqualified students to read for degree by studying courses broadcast on radio and television
- Made it easier for women to go to university (can care for children and attend uni at the same time, from home)
- Also people from manual jobs (ie miners) are also allowed to graduate from the Open university
- Harold Wilson later claimed this as his greatest achievement as PM
44
What was the level of immigration in the 60s?
Increase in immigrants: Kenya became independant, Uganda became independant-> expelled Asians that lived there, so they came to the UK
45
What was the Labour government's view on immigration and racial discrimination?
Labour tries to lessen racial discrimination in the UK, every day life
Other countries (ie France, USA) weren't trying to move in this direction
46
What are the Race Relations Act?
- Prohibited racial discrimination in public places (ie employment, housing)
- Incitement to racial hatred an offence
- Set up a Race Relations Board with power to investigate complaints of racial discrimination
- Set up Community Relations Commission to promote inter racial understanding
47
Who is Enoch Powell?
opposition prominent figure, nationalist
- Ironically presided over recruitment in Macmillan's government of Commonwealth immigrants as nurses and hospital workers
48
What did Enoch Powell do in 1968 in response to the immigration issues at the time?
- Gave a racist speech on the issues Britain will have as it will be split apart by racial conflict in the future-> condemned by all political sides, caused his dismissal from the shadow cabinet
- felt Unlimited immigration threatened the character of the UK
- Popular speech with some working class groups ie London Dockers
49
What is the Commonwealth Immigration Act 1968?
- Prohibited new immigrants from settling in Britain unless they had family connections already established
- Built on measures Conservatives placed in 1962
- Both major parties had concluded that limitations on entry into Britain were necessary in the interest of good race relations (which is why they implemented the Race Relations Act)
NEEDED to limit the amount of people-> too much swinging, need to limit or not enough swinging
50
How did the media present Immigrants?
- Racist language used regularly
20th April 1968- Powell's racist speech
51
How long had it been since Labour had last won an election? (until 1964?)
13 years
52
How did Labour target the younger voter electorate?
More youthful image-> Wilson is younger than Home or Macmillan + Labour seemed more in tune with young people + their ideas for progression
53
What movement did Labour MPs support which may have helped them gain power?
Saw power in the 'Swinging Sixties' movement
54
How did Wilson present himself, and how did it resonate with the working class voters?
Wilson represented himself as a Yorkshireman, more involved with the people, not an out of touch aristocrat like Home
55
What futuristic element did Wilson emphasise, which helped him appeal to voters?
Pushed for the 'white heat of the technological revolution'
56
What was the 1964 election results?
Labour seats: 317
Conservative seats: 304
Labour= 44.1% vote
Conservative= 43.6% vote
Labour had 4 seat majority
57
Why might have the Conservatives lost in terms of leadership?
May have lost due to Butler not being leader
- Close finish between Labour and Conservative
58
What was the reason for Labour's victory, not Conservative?
Loss of support for Conservatives, not recovery of Labour
Lots of the electorate wanted a change after 13 years of Conservative power
59
What were the reasons for Labour's victory in terms of political image + leadership?
- Wilson's skilful election campaign, presenting himself and his party as better fitted to lead the nation in technological age that Britain had entered
- Labour presented younger image that was in tune with changing tunes
- Harold Wilson was more impressive in public eye than Alec Douglas-Home
- Antiquated system (1922 committee), led to Douglas-Home as PM, damaging Conservative attempt to project a modern image
- Lack of Conservative spirit in government after 13 years in office
60
What were the reasons for Labour's victory in terms of social factors?
- Conservative government was main target of satire, beginning to flourish in 1960s in theatre and on radio and TV
- Unemployment reached 800,000 in 1963 (Britain did Not have is so good)
61
What were the reasons for Labour's victory in terms of scandals?
1963-4 scandals tainted Conservative image, weakening claims to integrity and competence
62
What were the reasons for Labour's victory in terms of foreign policy?
Failure in government attempt in 1963 to join EEC, exposing how weak Britain had become internationally
63
What was the Zeitgeist at the time?
- Labour were more in touch with the times, relatable to young people due to how he presented himself
- People were buying more mod cons + new technologies (ie basic washing machines, vacuum cleaners, standard gas and electric cookers) coming into 1964 election
- People were conscious of new inventions (ie TVs etc) needed a change in leadership to help them push through the changing times
64
Why may have people supported Labour more in the 1964 election?
- due to previous support for them
- Ie after the war
- Strong working class support
- 13 years Conservative rule was unusual.
65
Who was Edward Heath?
Conservative Leader (1916-2005)
Became leader as they needed someone who could deal with Wilson
Seaside Kent- working class, humble
Elected as Conservative leader by the Tory MPs, first Conservative party leader to be voted by Tory MPs (before there was not much vote, previous PMs usually pick, no vote)
Never married, never seemed to have a relationship with anyone (unusual for Conservatives)-> extent of Homophobia meant lots of people had marriages of convenience
66
Who was Harold Wilson?
Labour Leader (1916-95)
Working class- Yorkshire
Humble beginnings-> PPE at Oxford, ordinary person
Compared himself to Kennedy
Helped by having a northern accent, helping him relate to the working class
67
What were similarities between Heath and Wilson?
- Both have humble backgrounds, but both went to Oxford
- Same age
- Both took PPE
68
What were differences between Heath and Wilson?
Heath quick into politics, Wilson slow
Heath fought in the war, saw the horrors of the Nazis. Wilson was more academic, than Heath-> didn't fight as he was too intelligent so stayed in the civil service
Heath became conscious of the impact of WW2 on the European people, cared for them.
69
What was special about the New BT tower in 1964?
New for its time, progressed telephone technology (under Labour, tower was completed-> iconic, new architecture)
70
What happened in August 1964?
Last 2 people were executed for murder in the UK
71
What Higher Education development was made in 1969?
- The Open University established -> inclusive, anyone could join, helpful for women (mothers, easily study from home), also helped people from lower classes gain education and increased social mobility
72
What protests happened in 1968?
Anti Vietnam War protests (1968)-> lack of help Wilson gave Americans in Vietnam war-> increase in protest
73
What was Enoch Powell's 'Rivers of Blood' speech about?
support against white working class when using controversial language to warn against immigration.
74
What were the key features of Wilson's government?
- notably intellectual cabinet, younger than Macmillan's
- Pragmatic -> could be taken as opportunism (which was criticised by colleagues)
- Thin majority
75
Who were the 2 members of Wilson's Cabinet that were his friends and ex Bevanites?
Barbara Castle
Dick Crossman
76
What was the political leaning of the rest of Wilson's cabinet?
Most other leading ministers were Gaitskellites + not his friends
77
Who was George Brown?
deeply resentful of Wilson (Labour deputy leader)
78
Who was Anthony Wedgwood Brown?
more critical of Brown (Minister of Technology)
79
What did Wilson appoint Anthony Wedgwood Brown to?
Wilson appointed Brown to the Department of Economic Affairs
- Brand new ministry
- Charged with drafting a National Plan to raise Britain's economic game to compete more effectively
80
Due to tension in the Department of Economic Affairs, who did Wilson appoint there and why?
- Wilson appointed Jim Callaghan (rival) to pit his rivals against one another, keeping them under control (good for survival, not good for a coherent governments
81
What are the positives of frequent reshuffles?
Frequent cabinet reshuffles prevented ministers from establishing themselves effectively
82
What are the negatives of frequent reshuffles?
- Tried to create national efficiency by experimenting with reshuffles, but it also created bureaucratic confusion
83
What did Wilson establish within committees?
Also established cabinet sub-committees (MISCs)
84
What was Wilson's main economic objective?
Objective to revitalise economy + achieve higher rate of growth in line with Germany and Japan
85
What were Wilson's economic aims?
- Lower growth than EEC
- Exports lower than imports (trade deficit)
- Potential for inflation
- Potential for unemployment
- Boost growth (and exports) by modernising (white heat of technology)
- Improve industrial relations by controlling trade unions-> modernising means managers should improve but also workers by being more flexible and not striking so much
- Keep both inflation and unemployment low ie trade unions, should stop demanding above inflation pay rises
86
What was the lifespan of the Department of Economic Affairs?
- Created 1964, led by George Brown
- Produced a 'National Plan', probably helped win increased Labour seats in 1966 snap election,
- 1967 DEA disbanded
87
What did the Slow move from heavy industry to services mean for the government?
- Produced increasing pressures on government through the transition to the service sector (from mines to post industrial)
- Problems for Labour-> heavy industry areas in North have Labour MPs, effect on coal industry has direct impact on Labour MPs
88
What was the Prices and Incomes Board 1964?
A board that had Power to regulate pay settlements
89
What was the Labour party attitude to the Prices and Incomes Board 1964?
- Wilson's attitude disappointed left of Labour party + angered trade unions (who hopes a Labour government would bring benefits not lectures on need to be responsible)
90
What was the trade union attitude to the Prices and Incomes Board 1964?
TGWU leader (largest Trade union in Britain) Frank Cousins, made Minister of Technology in 1964, resigned over creation of the board
91
Why did Wilson feel that wage and salary had to be kept in check?
Wilson committed to idea that inflation + Britain's balance of payments deficit were the major threat to Britain's economic progress
92
What did Wilson want from Trade unions and employers to ensure Britain's economic progress?
- Wanted trade unions and employers to become more realistic in approach to wage demands + settlements
93
What did Wilson implement post 1966 election success?
Cuts in government spending and wage 'freeze'
94
What happened in 1966-67?
Seamen's and docker's union strikes
95
How did Wilson feel about the 1966-67 strikes?
Saw them as industrial disputes, deliberate attacks by a Marxist extremist group on Britain's Industrial wellbeing
Acknowledged conditions and regulations on the seamen needed modernisation, but pay demands couldn't be satisfied as overtime pay would counter prices and income policy that aimed to reduce inflation by limiting wage rises to 3.5%
96
What did the strikes lead to at ports across the UK?
- Imports and exports disrupted at ports over strikes, Wilson calls the Royal Navy in to control the ports, wanting to protect the interests of the nation
- Strikes led to exports worth £40 being delayed due to ships blocking berths in London, Liverpool, Southampton and other major ports
97
What is Devaluation?
Reducing the value of the pound against the dollar with the principle aim of making it easier to sell British goods abroad since they would be cheaper in real
98
What value was the pound initially pegged at and why?
Previously pegged to the value of gold- made sure everyone globally trusted the pound
99
Why did the pound lose its title as global currency?
- Eventually got to the point where there wasn't enough gold
- Also Britain wasn't leading economically, America was
- The dollar became a world currency
100
What was the conversion rate from the pound to the dollar?
£1= $2.80
101
How could the pound be made stronger/worth more?
Exports make demand for the pound go up, make the pound stronger
Could make pounds more in demand by buying pounds (hard for BofE)
102
Why was the value of the pound dropping?
Value of Pounds is dropping due to lack of export from Britain (due to factors like strikes, which Wilson blamed)
103
How did Wilson initially try to respond to the dropping value of the pound?
Wilson tried to borrow from IMF in 1967 again, after already borrowing in 1964
104
What are the positives of Wilson devaluing the Pound?
- Fixes balance of payments issue
- Helps increase demand in industry
- Might have to devalue later anyways
- Will encourage overseas demand, things become cheaper
105
What are the negatives of Wilson devaluing the pound?
- Doesn't help industry prosper,
- Labour already devalued in 1949, should address the issue of not caring for trade unions
- Humiliates Britain on an international stage
106
How much did Wilson devalue the pound by?
from $2.80 to $2.40
107
What happened to ministers as a result of the devaluation of the pound?
Callaghan resigned as chancellor of the exchequer + swapped with Roy Jenkins over the devaluation
108
What was Roy Jenkins' Economic Policy?
- Tackle balance of payments issue
- Cut government spending, postponed reforms like raising school leavers age
- Taxations raised, cut down national spending on imports (petrol, cigarettes, drink all cost more)
109
How did Jenkins' economic policy fare by 1969?
By 1969, upswing in world trade led to balance of payment surplus
110
How did Jenkins' economic policy impress the electorate?
Didn't switch to budget politics to woo voters.
111
Who was Roy Jenkins?
- Home Secretary for 2 years
- Liberal approach similar to Butler
- Less liberal and more orthodox as Chancellor of the Exchequer
1 of 4 from the Labour party who broke away in 1981 to form SDP
112
What are Criticisms of Wilson's government?
- Saw the value of his social reforms as isolated achievements
- Left wing critics saw rising unemployment, growing inflation, wage controls, attempted restriction of trade union freedoms
- Britain's failed attempt to join Europe
- Retention of Britain's nuclear weapons
Support of USA involvement in Vietnam War
113
What was Britain's role in the Vietnam War 1963-75?
- Attempt to restrict spread of Communism in Asia, USA fought with Indo-China
- Britain didn't get directly involved in Vietnam, but both Conservative + Labour governments gave their diplomatic backing to the USA throughout the conflict
- Left wing protests led to violent riot outside US embassy in London's Grosvenor Square, March 1968
114
What did Britain do about its 'East of Suez' role between 1967-71?
- Found favour in the left when government made decision to end Britain's 'East of Suez' stance
- 1967-Denis Healey (Defence Minister) announced plans for withdrawal of troops from bases in Borneo, Malaya, Singapore and Persian Gulf
- Planned to take effect by 1971
- Withdrawal went ahead against the host governments' protest, who lost income + protection
USA strongly disapproved, arguing Cold War tensions required greater not lesser commitment to defence of world strategic areas
115
Why did the Wilson government go ahead with ending 'East of Suez' role?
- High cost to maintain expensive bases, at a time of financial and economic difficulty within Britain
- Intensive military engagements in 50s and 60s in Malaya, Cyprus, Kenya and Aden. Although mostly successful, they stretched Britain's military resources to limits
- Suez Crisis undermined Britain's confidence in playing the role of world policeman
- Process of giving up former colonies + Empire made it wholly logical for Britain to withdraw many military bases
- Britain was still committed to development of nuclear weapons, could still claim to be world power, despite military cutbacks
116
What was the problem with Britain's commitment to the development of nuclear weapons?
This point angered + divided the left of the Labour party
117
What was a problem in terms of the Conservative party with Britain's commitment to the development of nuclear weapons?
Conservatives criticised the undermining of the 'East of Suez' role, but Heath's government after 1970 made no attempt to reverse the withdrawal the Labour government made
118
How did Wilson think the 1970 election was going to go?
- Wilson felt despite internal party unrest + loss of number of seats in by-elections, Labour still had solid basic support
119
What did Wilson fail to understand prior to the 1970 election, which caused Labour's loss?
Didn't realise his undistinguished economic policies, apparent failure to control unions lost his government a significant degree of support amongst moderate voters
120
What, surprisingly, brought support to the Conservative party during the 1970 election?
- Although Enoch Powell had been dismissed (following 'rivers of blood' speech), his stand on immigration gained Conservatives 2.5 million votes
121
What were the election results for the 1970 election in terms of seats?
Conservatives-330
Labour-287
Liberal-6
122
What were the election results for the 1970 election in terms of vote share (%)?
Conservatives-46.4
Labour-43
Liberal-7.5
123
Overall, How much did the Conservatives win the 1970 election by?
Conservative majority of 30 seats
5% swing from Labour to Conservative was enough
124
How did Wilson narrowly win the 1964 election ?
- Conservative failings: tired and aging image
- Wilson out debated Douglas Home
- Labour's young and enterprising image
125
What were Labour's economic difficulties between 1964-70?
- Britain in transition:
○ Manufacturing industry shrink
○ Service and finance industry expands
○ Rejection of UK EEC application
○ Union resistance to reform
'In Place of Strife' abandoned
○ Inflation
○ Unemployment
○ Wilson devalues the pound
126
What were Labour's social reforms between 1964-70?
- Abortion Act 1967 liberalises abortion law
- Sexual Offences Act 1967 decriminalises homosexuality
- Ombudsman office created, 1967, to protect ordinary citizen
- Theatres Act 1968 ends censorship of plays
- Abolition of the death penalty 1969
- Divorce Reform Act 1969, allows 'irretrievable breakdown' as grounds
'The Open University 1969', provides higher education through radio and TV
127
How did the Labour government respond to Social Unrest between 1964-70?
- Government responds to racial violence with restrictive Commonwealth Immigration Act 1968
128
What role did the Labour government lead overseas between 1964-70?
- Costs and changing attitude to policeman role leads to abandoning of Britain's 'East of Suez' Role
- UK gives diplomatic support to USA
129
What were Wilson's shortcomings between 1964-70?
- Rising unemployment
- Growing inflation
- Conflict with trade unions
- Immigration controls
Failure to join Europe
130
Why did Wilson lose the 1970 election?
- Undistinguished economic policies
- Failure to control the unions
- Devaluation
Powell failure
131
What did Denis Healy hope to aim for on Britain's defence between 1964-70?
Determined to reduce Britain's defence commitments and expenditure in line with shrunken economic power in the world
132
How did Dennis Healy reduce Britain's defence commitments between 1964-70?
- Scrapped British built TSR2 aircraft, designed to deliver Britain's nuclear bombs to Russia
- No more aircraft carriers built for the navy + slashed expenditure on territorial army
- Defeat of Communist insurgency in Malaya allowed for more troops to be withdrawn
- Defence expenditure fell from 6% GDP to 4% by 1971 due to devaluation
Withdrew all troops from Asia-> Britain was no longer an economic power
133
What happened in terms of industrial relations between 1966-67?
1966 Seamen's union strikes + dock strikes a year later
- Docker and seamen strikes had devastating affects on trade + balance of payments (striking prevented goods and commodities from import/export)
134
How did the Conservatives try to retaliate the growing Industrial relations issues in the country in 1968?
Conservatives produced proposals for reform, entitled 'Fair Deal at Work'
○ Included compulsory cooling off period after strikes and other reforms
Well received- seemed public opinion swayed towards regulation of union power
135
How did the Labour government try to retaliate to the growing industrial relations issues between 1964-70?
- Proposed to set up an Industrial Relations Court, where unions would be subject to certain circumstances
○ Minister was given power to impose settlements in inter-union disputes
○ Could order a strike ballot before a strike
○ Proposed a compulsory 28 day 'conciliation pause' before a strike took place
136
How did Trade Unions react to the Industrial Relations Court proposal?
Trade unions disagreed, and encouraged resistance with the Labour party and government
137
What was eventually agreed between the Labour Government and TUC?
- Meetings with TUC led to them promising to monitor strikes and labour disputes, using influence to settle them
138
When did Heath become leader of the Conservative party?
1965
139
How did Heath and Wilson lead the House of Commons?
Heath + Wilson-> Consensus politics
○ Heath sympathetic to unions, more free market spin on policies than Labour, but still believed in Welfare State, government management of economy to deliver full employment
140
How did Powell feel about Consensus politics?
- Powell began to question 'consensus politics', resigning as Treasury in 1958 in protest against increased public spending
○ Became critic of role of government in managing economy
○ Opposed nationalisation, prices and income policies
○ Seemed to only support unrestrained free market, government should only supply money and control its own spending
141
Why did Britain apply to the EEC for the second time in 1967?
- Economic fears at home prompted Wilson's government to retry after French veto 4 years prior
- Feared Britain would be left behind ecnomically and financially by 'the six'
142
How did others react to the 2ND application to the EEC in 1967?
- Preliminary discussions with the EEC against background of sterling crisis- ked to devlauation
- Opposed by 36 Labour MPs, fully backed by Conservatives + Liberals
- Other countries felt Britain would be obstructive member of EEC
- French President De GAULLE vetoed UK application
Same humiliation for Wilson as Macmillain
143
What were the results of the 1966 snap election?
Labour majority of 110 seats in 1966 snap election
Overall Labour seats: 363
1966 snap election
Conservative vote percentage 41.9%
Labour vote percentage 47.9%
144
What does 'closed shop' mean?
start work + employers forced employees to join trade unions
- Employers are scared of trade unions, don't want them to retaliate so just wanted people to join trade unions
145
Who were workers strikes run by?
Leadership of the union tell workers to strike, not decided by members of the union
Led by the 'shop steward'
146
What were workers who didn't want to go on strike called?
Called a 'scab'
147
How many days were lost due to union strikes between 1957-70?
1957- 8,421,000 days lost
1958- down to 3,462,000 days lost, similar number of strikes, but less severe strikes
1963- 1,755,000-> real wages rising, workers have less of a reason to demand higher wages and not be given it
1964- 2,277,000-> number of strikes and days lost increases
Up and down until increase from 1968-70 (could blame Conservatives for 1970)
148
Why did Wilson need trade union support?
Labour party was almost completely funded by trade unions
149
Why was there conflict between Wilson and Trade unions' aims?
Wilson wants 'white heat of technology' and modernise technology
- Workers scared as they will lose jobs
Wants to increase growth and exports
- Worried by the 1966 + 67 strikes
Wants to reduce inflation
- Increasing wages can increase inflation, which devalues the pound in real terms
150
How did Wilson overestimate the Balance of Payments crisis?
- Private sector profits
1969- fixed balance of surplus (+402 million)
1964 (end of budget politics)-> (-744 million)
1966-> (-48 million)
151
What is the National plan of 1964?
National Plan 1964:
- Creation of DEA under George Brown (Deputy party leader)
- New ministry of Technology, government intent on modernising
- Aimed at stimulating industrial production + exports by encouraging cooperation between government, employers and trade union
- Treasury- led by James Callaghan (Chancellor of the Exchenquer)
- Set up rivalry between Callaghan and Brown to keep them in cabinet in check
- DEA is too ambitious
- Abandoned by 1967
152
What were economic challenges for the Labour 1964-70 government?
Labour inherited debt and a chronic balance of payments deficit from the Tories, who had also done little to solve Britain’s long term problem of low productivity.
153
How was the Labour government of 1964-70 successful in combatting economic challenges?
Labour did succeed in narrowing the balance of payments deficit. They introduced an import tax to encourage people to buy British, and exchange controls for those going on holiday abroad. They kept income tax high and resisted the temptation to ‘stop go’ like the Conservatives had. By 1966 unemployment was low enough that they won a larger majority in the election. The Conservatives had believed one way to boost growth was by joining the EEC and Labour switched their policy to be in favour of that by 1967, only to be rebuffed by the French again. George Brown’s National Plan showed how determined they were to boost productivity and their support for ‘white heat of technology’ style research and development was effective.
154
How was the Labour government of 1964-70 unsuccessful in combatting economic challenges?
However, Wilson handled George Brown and the Department of economic Affairs rivalry with the Treasury badly, leading to an incoherent approach and, effectively, the abandonment of the Plan by 1969. Labour could not avoid devaluation by 1967. Pressure on the £ made the decision inevitable, but Wilson damaged their political credibility in the melodramatic and deceitful way in which he presented it.
155
What were socio-economic challenges for the Labour 1964-70 government ?
1966-67 workers + dockers strikes
Tried to make more laws and regulations to stop them, public consensus was moving against the trade unions
Wants to reduce inflation and increase growth- strikes got in the way of that
EEC
156
How was the Labour government of 1964-70 successful in combatting socio- economic challenges?
Did eventually pass a revised agreement
- 1968- Conservatives produced proposals for reform, entitled 'Fair Deal at Work'
Well received- seemed public opinion swayed towards regulation of union power (worried Wilson)
- Had a plan 'In Place of Strife' (white paper)
- Proposed to set up an Industrial Relations Court, where unions would be subject to certain circumstances
§ Minister was given power to impose settlements in inter-union disputes
§ Could order a strike ballot before a strike (vote secretly per voter if they want to strike or not, secret ballot)
§ Proposed a compulsory 28 day 'conciliation pause' before a strike took place
157
How was the Labour government of 1964-70 unsuccessful in combatting socio- economic challenges?
Trade unions were large backers and funders of the Labour Party
- made them annoyed, damaged relations with them
- Couldn't pass initial bill, reflected badly on Castle and Wilson
- Trade unions disagreed, and encouraged resistance with the Labour party and government-> ending in defeat of Castle and Wilson
- Callaghan took lead in stopping the Bill, successful opposition
- Castle created a voluntary agreement 'A Solemn and Binding agreement'
Meetings with TUC led to them promising to monitor strikes and labour disputes, using influence to settle them (didn't fully pass the bill, failure of Castle)
158
What were the social challenges for the Labour 1964-70 government ?
There had been longstanding campaigns to liberalise society and prevent the practical problems caused by repressive legislation, such as the criminalisation of homosexuality.
- 1957 Wolfenden Committee Report recommends the liberalisation of laws that made homosexuality illegal
Some contraception was available on the NHS from 1961 like the pill
159
How was the Labour government of 1964-70 successful in combatting social challenges?
Labour’s Home Secretary Roy Jenkins was a passionate liberal who believed in treating people like adults. Either through government legislation or supporting private members’ bills he legalised abortion (1967), decriminalised homosexuality (1967) and ended the death penalty (1965). He also ensured Labour was distinct from the Conservatives on Race Relations by passing two Acts in 1966 and 1968 that set up a Race Relations Board to tackle discrimination in employment and accommodation and making incitement to racial hatred a crime. In all these respects Labour was displaying a message of being in tune with the zeitgeist of the ‘swing sixties’ and modernisation.
- Private members bills were backed by the government, but weren't proactive in introducing it-> less controversial than the government steering acts like abortion and legalising homosexuality
- Government was keen for backbenchers being the public face
160
How was the Labour government of 1964-70 unsuccessful in combatting social challenges?
However, Labour did not pay close attention to whether its social policies were in tune with the majority of its small c conservative voters. There had been no mass movement clamouring for, for example, the end of the death penalty and opinion polls put support for it as low as 18%. Some potential Labour voters were alarmed by the pace of change and the new problems of the ‘permissive’ society, like divorce. The racist Conservative frontbencher Enoch Powell had some support from white working class people like the Dockers after he made his ‘rivers of blood’ speech. On race relations Labour tried to look both ways, by also restricting immigration in their 1968 Act. However, they did not proactively attempt to explain why racism was wrong or to tackle the Powell onslaught head on.
161
What were political challenges for the Labour 1964-70 government ?
idn't realise growing divisions and lack of support from both party and voters
Came to power in 1964 with majority of 4 seats
Won majority of 96 in 1966 election
Lost 1970 election to Heath
Powell factor
Foreign
- Support of USA
- East of Suez
- Inherited high defence spending
Divided Labour party
- 'in place of strife'
- Divided between Bevanites and Gaitskellites
162
How was the Labour government of 1964-70 successful in combatting political challenges?
1966- snap election
National Plan 1964:
- Creation of DEA under George Brown
- New ministry of Technology, government intent on modernising
- Aimed at stimulating industrial production + exports by encouraging cooperation between government, employers and trade union
-
Better than Conservatives in run up to 1970 election- didn't do 'budget politics' or tax cuts - responsibly managing the economy
Didn't get involved with Vietnam
Labour majority of 110 seats in 1966 snap election
47.9% votes
162
How was the Labour government of 1964-70 unsuccessful in combatting political challenges?
Abandoned National plan by 1967
East of Suez
Vietnam war
2.5 million voters gone to Conservatives- 'rivers of blood speech'-> white working class, lost from Labour to Conservatives
Riot about Vietnam
1970 election, called early-> Heath won majority of 30
Commonwealth immigration Act 1969- didn't succeed in preventing white working class from voting Tory
Went against Labour values- Left felt betrayed, lost support
163
What happened in 1964?
Labour election victory, narrow overall majority, Wilson PM
National Plan to modernise British economy
164
What happened in 1966?
Labour increases its parliamentary majority in a second election
165
What happened in 1967?
Government forced to devalue £
Abortion Act, hallmark of permissive society
166
What happened in 1965 and 68?
Race Relations Acts aim to reduce discrimination
167
What happened in 1968?
Commonwealth immigration Act reduces immigration
Huge protest by young against Vietnam War, Grosvenor Square
168
What happened in 1969?
‘In place of strife’ aims to improve industrial relations following wave of strikes
169
What happened in 1970?
Labour loses general election to Conservatives
170
What are examples of permissive social legislation from 64-70?
Jenkins allowed Liberal MP David Steel to pass the 1967 Abortion Act, legalising abortion, still in place today, decriminalised homosexual acts between men with the Sexual Offences Act 1967. Later Home Secretary abolished the Death Penalty 1969 and made divorce easier 1969. Some censorship of sexual matters lifted e.g. Lady Chatterley’s Lover.
171
What were the Race Relations like from 64-70?
made discrimination harder but also restricted immigration numbers from ‘New Commonwealth’ countries like Jamaica and India. Increased tension after Conservative Enoch Powell made racist ‘rivers of blood’ speech warning about dangers immigration in 1968.
172
What is Counterculture?
more psychedelic drugs and protest culture among young. Hippies. This was set against the prevalent ‘small c’ conservatism which was optimised by Mary Whitehouse.
173
What was Women's liberation like in 64-70?
the seed were sown in this period with access to the contraceptive pill combined with increasing education making women more able to fight for their rights, but feminism did not get firmly established until the 70s.
174
How did Labour's moderation work against them by 1970?
Disillusion with Labour’s moderation: the groups who had welcomed end of Conservative rule - trade unions, young people, radical students - became disillusioned by 1970, making Labour appear less in touch with modern times.
175
What was the 'White heat of technology' movement between 64-70 by Wilson?
this was Wilson’s promise for how Labour would reverse its reputation for low growth – the ‘sick man of Europe’ by making industry more efficient, productive, and developing the technologies of the future. The ‘National Plan’ as part of a new Department of Economic Affairs, led by George Brown, set targets, which were abandoned by 1967.
176
How did Wilson act against inflation between 64-70?
Inflation continued so Wilson proposed Prices and Incomes Board to curb prices but also urge trade unions to be restrained in wage demands. They refused and a wave of strikes, e.g., Dockers, 1966-7 led Wilson to be increasingly determined to reduce union power, with ‘In Place of Strife’ White Paper.
177
How did Wilson deal with strikes and devaluation?
Strikes also worsened export earnings and therefore the trade deficit and balance of payments. Some said Wilson could have sat it out but he got loans from the International Monetary Fund and then devalued the £ so he could more easily pay back debts.
178
How did economic problems weaken the 64-70 government?
former ally Transport and General Workers’ Union boss Frank Cousins resigned as Minister of Technology, 1964, Chancellor James Callaghan felt he had to resign following humiliation of devaluation. James Callaghan urged Wilson to abandon In Place of Strife union reforms to avoid alienating further.
179
Why did Labour lose the 1970 election?
failure on a number of policy fronts, the impression of division combined with an estimate that Powell’s racism gained the Conservatives 2.5 million votes
180
How did Wilson react to the Troubles in NI?
The ‘Troubles’ start in Northern Ireland, as Catholics form a civil rights movement to protest oppression and discrimination by Protestant majority. This erupts into the Battle of the Bogside leading to Home Secretary James Callaghan sending troops to keep order 1969.
