Brain and Neural Theory Flashcards
Neuropsychology
The study of the relationship between the brain (it’s many structures, organization, physiology, chemistry etc) and human behaviour
What seperates the two hemispheres?
The two sides of the brain are separated by the longitudinal fissure
Cerebrospinal fluid
Saline fluid made by the ependymal glial cells that circulates through the brains meninges and the spinal column to cushion the CNS and remove metabolic waste
Where does cerebrospinal fluid drain?
Flow through the ventricles and drains out of the fourth ventricle
Cerebrocortex
Aka just the cortex is the folded tissue that covers the outside of the brain. It’s made up of cell bodies and this is gray matter and is divided into 4 generally lobes. The creases and folds are called sulci and gyri
What is a gyrus
It’s one of the folds on the cortex
Commissures
Are structures that connect the brains pathways, the biggest one being the corpus callosum which connects the right and left hemisphere
What are the four cortical lobes? Where are they located?
Temporal Lobes : a lateral structure located on each ear side (hint being that it deals with auditory input)
Frontal: intuitive so it’s just the rostral most lobe
Parietal Lobes: posterior to the frontal lobe and anterior/superior to the occipital lobe
Occipital lobe: The caudal most lobe
Brain theory
That the brain is the most important structure in cognition and behaviour
Mind-Body Problem
Asks whether it’s the mind that controls the body or the body that influences the mind
Epigenetics
The science of environment and experience effects on not gene inheritance but rather gene expression
Neuroplasticity
The neuron/brains ability to adapt to its surroundings,like for example if there’s damage to the brain, often the other neurons will adapt to compensate for that loss of function
What concept is the biological basis for the Theory of Learning and Memory?
Neuroplasticity
What is Localization of function?
The theory that individual neural structures are responsible for individual functions and behaviours (Gall & Spurzheim)
What is Lateralization of Function?
Theory stating that each side of the brain can perform functions that the other cant
What concept seemingly undermines localization of function?
Hierarchical Organization. While it’s true that each part of the brain can be responsible for a given function or behaviour, as shown through various lesion studies, the brain still has a hierarchy of function in which complex functions are an amalgamation of smaller level functions building on top of each other. So, in the case of damage to a higher cortical level, the lower levels can sometimes compensate for that loss. Though this does not work the opposite way around as higher cortical levels cannot compensate for the lower ones
Why is disconnection important?
Disconnection is essentially a proof for hierarchical organization; it shows that each function is an assembly line of events made through connections between structures. When this connection is severed, part of this assembly line is shut down
Hierarchical Organization
Theory by John Hughlings Jackson saying that the brain processes information and perfoems functions in a hierarchy where one function is more complex and builds upon the next
What is dissolution and what could cause it?
Dissolution is the inverse of evolution, where an organism reverts to their most ancestral and survivalist state. This can be because of a disconnection between higher and lower structures in terms of hierarchy
Neuron theory and its principles
Neuron theory is built on the assumption that the main unit of the brain and the cause of its function is the neuron
1) neurons are their own autonomous structures that do not actually touch other neurons as they’re divided by the synaptic gap
2)Neurons send electrochemical signals between eacvh other
Tracts
Neural fibre pathways
Hemorrhagic Stroke
results from a burst vessel bleeding into the brain ; less common than ischémic stroke
Ischemic Stroke
Resulting from a blot in a blood vessel leading to less blood flow in a region of the brain
Ipsilateral
On the same side
Contralateral
On opposing sides
Bilatéral
On both sides
Dorsal vs Ventral
Dorsal is the top view almost like birds eye,, dorsal is nearer to the sky
Ventral is a worms view,, nearer to the ground
Genotype v Phenotype
Genotype is your actual genetic makeup
Phenotyoe is how your genes get expressed into physical charasteristics, this can change and is influence by your environment
What’re the steps of Wernicke’s Model?
- Sound waves enter the auditory pathway in the temporal lobe
The binding problem and why its important
The binding problem investigate how cortical connections and functions bind together our sensory perception into one coherent experience even though differing sensory processes are controlled by different cortical structures
Ventral Stream v Dorsal Stream
 Ventral stream is a pathway that stretches from the visual cortex right above the brain stem to the temporal lobe making it responsible for object identification
dorsal stream stretches from the visual cortex to the parietal region guiding actions relative to objects
ventral stream deals with conscious perception while the dorsal stream handles unconscious perception meaning that vision memory and other cognitive functions is not unitary and it consist of several pathways
Breakdown the anatomy of a neuron and the structures individual functions
soma: is the cell body and is essentially the nucleus of the neuron
intracellular fluid: is what it sounds lie its the space inside the neural membrane
Axon: the long tale fiber of the neuron which neurotransmitters and electrical impulses travel down
Terminal buttons: the end of the axon where neurotransmitters are releases into the synaptic gap onto the next neuron
Dendrites: the extra fibers opposite the axon which receive neurotransmitters and increase the neurons surface area
Myelin: lipid which insulates the membrane of the axon and allows for better conduction from one neuron to the next, white matter is called white because it consists of myelinated axons while grey matter is grey because it consists mainly of neural cell bodies
node of ranvier: the gaps inbetween the myelinated pockets of the axon
extracellular fluid: the space outside of the neural membrane
Define Topographic Organization and its importance
In many parts of the mammalian brain spatially adjacent stimuli on sensory receptor surfaces are represented in adjacent positions in cortex, a pattern known as topographic organization. Topographic organization provides invaluable information about brain function and structure.
Describe Charles Scott Sherrington and Learning Theory
Charles Scott Sherrington investigated how information jumps from one neuron to the next in which he found that it moves across a gap called the synapse which helps neurotransmitters move from one or onto another
from this discovery of the synapse came the concept of learning theory where neurons that often at activate together continue to strengthen each other and make greater connections
What are psychometrics? Give one example
Psychometrics is the science of measuring human cognitive ability, the most notable psychometric is the IQ test—developed by Francis Galton in 1891. The IQ test was gotten his way of trying to account for and measure individual differences in intelligence and grasp peoples average scores on a bell curve
Name and Describe 4 common neuroimaging techniques
Computed Tomography (CT): A CT scan passes x-rays through the brain where injured areas create a darker area because healthy brain cells have less water than that the x-rays can absorb into
Positron Emission Tomography (PET): Injects a radioactive substance into the bloodstream after it rapidly decays it shows which reading in the brain certain elements would be present and if a radioactive oxygen is administered it will show which parts of the brain is using oxygen the most or the least
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) : shows the location of molecules in motion by finding the electrical charge them movement generates by using  magnetic field it also finds oxygen as it varies in carbon as it varies in the brain
 The fusion tensor imaging is a type of MRI that tracks specifically water molecules to investigate the brains nerve fibre pathways
Afferent v Efferent
Afferent describes the pathways leading from the body to the brain a.k.a. the sensory pathways
Efferent refers to pathways going from the brain to the body aka motor pathways
Whats the difference between the anatomical and functional nervous system?
The anatomical nervous system groups the peripheral nervous system into the SNS and ANS only
functional nervous system which gives the SNS and ANS its own individual groupings next to the central nervous system
The Central Nervous System consists of….
The brain and the spinal cord
The Peripheral Nervous system consists of…..
The peripheral nervous system consists of the somatosensory nervous system and the autonomic nervous system
Sympathetic v Parasympathetic Nervous system
The Parasympathetic and Sympathetic nervous system are parts of the autonomic nervous system
the sympathetic nervous system controls the fight or flight responses: This increases heart rate, blood pressure, and slows digestion
the parasympathetic controls the rest and digest responses: this decreases heart rate, levels blood pressure, and encourages digestion
Describe the somatosensory nervous system
The somatosensory nervous system is made primarily of afferent sensory pathways to the central nervous system this consist of spinal and cranial nerves that go to and from the organ skin and muscles sensory info that transmitted includes pain temperature, visual positioning and movements and transmits all sensation
Name and describe the protective layers of the meninges
The meninges are the membranes outside debris that form a three layer wall of tissue
Dura mater: the outer most surface layer made of a rough substance
arachnoid membrane: a thin sheet that contours of the brain and lays flush against the brain
pia mater: innermost layer that mildly rough and sticks to the brain surface
What is hydrocephalus?
Hydrocephalus is caused when the ventricular drainage system of cerebral spinal fluid in the brain is damage causing an increase of water on the brain
Define Blood Brain Barrier
The blood brain barrier protects the central nervous system from any bloodborn pathogens and toxins. The astroglial cells stimulate the capillaries into a tight net with each other limiting the blood flow from the outside to the CNS
How does blood reach the CNS?
The brain gets blood from two carotid arteries and two vertebral arteries which connects to combine into three cerebral arteries
anterior artery: gives blood to the middle and top part of the brain
middle cerebral artery : handles the lateral surfaces of the brain
posterior cerebral artery : sends blood to the back and bottom part of the brain
Describe the process of neural development
Nuro development starts with a neural stem cell that his self renewing and from this for many Neural and glial cell types can be formed. The, stem cell it turns into the progenitor—- where the embryo develops into non-dividing cells called blasts. These blasts can be neural or glial and later for differing neuron and gli cells
Define progenitor
Neural and glial cells come from…..
These cells form from a self renewing neural stem cell
Neuroblasts v Glial Blasts
Neuroblast conform into interneurons or projecting neurons
Glial blasts can turn into oliodendroglial cells or astrocytes as well as astroglia microglia and Ependymal glia
Bipolar neuron v somatosensory neuron
A bipolar neuron turn sensory information into nervous system activity to be processed it has a dendrite on one and an axon on the other
the somatosensory neuron projects from receptors in the body to the spinal cord and has a dendrite an axon connected to make faster conduction
aspiny neuron v spiny neuron
 Findin The arabe The tarte The attendre Dear esperer Wind which increase the surface area of the dendrites these are generally excitable using glutamate or aspirate as a common neurotransmitter they can have stellate or Piramidal cells
aspiny neurons have a lack of dendritic spine and are generally inhibitory they use GABA in combination with many other Nero transmitters and neuropeptides making a spinal neurons incredibly physically and chemically diverse
Describe interneurons
These are found only in the brain and spinal cord, tehy are how sensory and motor activity link to and from the CNS
What are motor cells?
Motor cells are located in the brainstem and spinal cord and project out onto muscle cells to produce movement 
Name the types of glial cells and their function
Ependymal glial cells: are one type of glial cells that produce cerebrospinal fluid and line the ventricles
astroglia : give structure and nutrients to neurons; star shaped
microglia : fight infection and clean debris
olioDentroglia insulate, neurons in the CNS along with Schwann glia, which insulate cells in the PNS, and they both create myelin
Grey matter v White Matter v Reticular Matter
Gray matter: makes up the cortex, named after the colour of the area, which is made up of the soma and capillaries 
White matter : consist mostly of insulated axons and get to white colour from the myelin, which is made up of white lipids.
Reticular matter: is a mix of cell body an axon that is a mix of white and gray.
What’s the difference between a Tract and a Cluster
A cluster is a defined group of cell bodies/layers of nuclei in the CNS
tracts : large collections of axon‘s going to, and from the CNS 
List the regions of a vertebrae brain and their functions
The vertebrae brain is made up of three parts.
The prosencephalon: which is the forebrain needed for olfaction
mesencephalon: the midbrain needed for seeing and hearing
the rhombencephalon : the hindbrain for movement and balance.
From a vertebrae brain to a mammalian brain, the Rhombencephalon devlops into… 
In the mammalian brain the rhombencephalon develops into two sections,
metenCephalon which goes across the brain and includes the cerebellum
myencephalon, which is the lower brainstem
List the parts of a mammalian brain and their functions
The parts of a mammalian brain are the
prosencephalon, which develops into the cerebral cortex from the anterior side. The cerebral cortex part is known as the telencephalon. on the posterior side, it becomes the diencephalon meaning between brains that has the thalamus. 
The rhombencephalon becomes the metencephalon and the Myencephalon. The metenCephalon includes the cerebellum and the myencephalon is the lower brainstem 
What’s the organization of function in a human brain ?
In a human brain, there’s a fore brain which deals with all cognitive processing
the brainstem which deals with regulatory processing like eating, drinking, balance, etc.,
the spinal cord which deals with reflexive motor function 
What are ventricles?
Ventricles are hollow sacs that hold cerebral spinal fluid, and the 3rd and 4th ventricles are connected to the cerebral aqueduct 
From a vertebrae brain to a mammalian brain, the prosencephalon devlops into…
Diencephalon and Telencephalon
List and describe the 5 vertebrae sections of the spinal column
cervical : neck and shoulders
thoracic: top to mid back
lumbar: lower back and front legs
sacral : butt and back.
Cocgyeal is mid back. 
Afferent nerves v Efferent Fibers (for spinal cord)
afferent nerves, enter the posterior spinal cord to bring information from sensory receptors on the skin and organs. These nerves formed the posterior root. Afférent nerves are therefore sensory nerves.
Efferent nerves leave the anterior spinal cord with information to carry to the muscles to produce movement. These form the anterior root—making efferent nerves motor nerves.
Bell Magendie Law
This law essentially notes that posterior/dorsal roots of the spinal cord are sensory and anterior/ventural roots are motor. it establishes that efferent nerves are motor and afferent Nerves are sensory 
Paraplegic v Quadreplegic
A paraplegic is someone who suffers a cut below the cervical vertebrae, and cannot move their legs
a quadriplegic is someone with a cut above their cervical vertebrae, and could not move their arms and legs 
Whatre the three goals of spinal cord research
 Spinal cord research goals are:
1) stop degeneration of the spinal cord seeing as the damage in the spinal cord is progressive
2) Implement fiver regrowth through glial cell implants and removing scar tissue in medicine
to restore function
3) developing technologies to aid movement 
Define Reflexes
Within the spinal cord, different fibers is mediate different reflexes and sensors for pain are generally smaller than those for touch and muscle sense. Reflexes are spinal neural, circuits that trigger one specific stimuli make specific movements. 
Flexion v Extension reflexes
A Flexion reflex is a reflex caused by pain that brings the affected area into the body and away from the injury. If only mild pain is felt this reflex is only in the very distal part of the affected area. 
An extension reflex by fine, touch and muscle receptors extends the area that’s affected out towards the stimuli 
Define cranial nerves and name 6 of them
Cranial nerves, send sensory and motor signals to, and from the head. Usually cranial nerves do one or the other but some like the spinal accessory and vagus nerve are both sensory and motor. 
Olfactory
Optic
Vagus
Oculomotor
Facial
Spinal accessory
What is Referred pain and why does it occur
Because organs don’t have sensory representation in the spinal cord itself. Pain in an organ is often felt in the skin relative to that organ. 
List the regions of the hindbrain and their functions
hindbrain handles regulatory functions like sleeping, eating and drinking.
It includes the cerebellum, which is covered in small folds and contributes heavily to motor motor coordination
the reticular formation, which helps maintain general arousal and is known as the reticular activating system. Damage to this area can cause permanent unconsciousness.
The pons is the upper brainstem. This is the bridge of info between the cerebellum and the rest of the brain.
The medulla is the lower brainstem, which regulates breathing and cardiovascular function. 
What are the three ways to section a brain?
Coronal section; to cut thru both eyes from the top
Sagittal: to cut in between the eyes
Horizontal: to cut the eyes hamburger style
Cerebral hemispheres are derived from the…
Telencephalon
is located immediately above the corpus callosum
Cingulate Cortex
