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Y2S1 - Brain and Behaviour > Brain and Behaviour 2 > Flashcards

Brain and Behaviour 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the only output from the basal ganglia?

A

PMC

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2
Q

How does the basal ganglia interact with motor control?

A

Suppresses unwanted movements, generally initiates and terminates movement, establishes normal level of tone

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3
Q

What structures comprise the subcortical motor control loop?

A

Basal ganglia, cerebellum, PMC

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4
Q

How does the cerebellum interact with motor control?

A

Similar to basal ganglia, monitors differences in intended and actual movements

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5
Q

What are the two types of of UMN?

A

Direct and indirect

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6
Q

What do direct UMN input to?

A

LMN from axons extending directly from cerebral cortex

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7
Q

What do indirect UMN input to?

A

LMN from motor centres in brainstem, basal ganglia, cerebellum and cortex

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8
Q

What reflex is studied in aplysia?

A

Gill and siphon withdrawal

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9
Q

In what organism is the gill and siphon withdrawal reflex studied?

A

Aplysia

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10
Q

What is the gill and siphon withdrawal reflex?

A

Touch to siphon elicits gill withdrawal

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11
Q

What is habituation?

A

Repeated stimuli results in reduced reflex

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12
Q

Where does habituation of the gill and siphon withdrawal reflex in the aplysia occur?

A

Abdominal-ganglion synapse

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13
Q

What is the cellular basis of habituation?

A

A result of reduced synaptic strength, and reduced transmitter release

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14
Q

What is sensitisation?

A

Increased reflex response by association with simultaneous second stimulus

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15
Q

What does sensitisation involve?

A

Pre-synaptic input from sensory neurons - serotinergic and GP action

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16
Q

What is associative learning?

A

Association of one stimulus with another, resulting with the response to the original stimulus also being evoked by the second stimulus

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17
Q

What was the famous example of associative learning?

A

Pavlovian dogs

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18
Q

Outline various models of sensitisation or learning

A

Multiple intracellular signalling pathways, varied activation thresholds, pre and post-synaptic modulation, long term involves nucleus

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19
Q

What does NSP stand for?

A

Non-synaptic plasticity

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20
Q

What is NSP?

A

Experience-dependent changes to synaptic efficacy not based directly on synaptic changes

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21
Q

What is Hebbian synapse modification?

A

Coordinated activity of a presynaptic terminal and a postsynaptic neuron strengthen the synaptic connection between them

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22
Q

Outline the hippocampal LTP circuit

A

Entorhinal cortex - dentate gyrus - CA3 - CA1 - fornix and subiculum

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23
Q

What are the three neuronal connections in the hippocampal LTP circuit?

A

Perforant fibres, mossy fibres, Schaffer collaterals

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24
Q

Where do perforant fibres connect in the hippocampal LTP circuit?

A

Entorhinal cortex to dentate gyrus

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25
Q

Where do mossy fibres connect in the hippocampal LTP circuit?

A

Dentate gyrus to CA3

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26
Q

Where are Schaffer collaterals?

A

CA3 and CA1

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27
Q

What does LTP stand for?

A

Long term potentiation

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28
Q

Where does LTP usually occur?

A

Before CA3 and CA1 synapses

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29
Q

What does HFS stand for?

A

High frequency stimulus

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30
Q

What causes LTP?

A

HFS

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31
Q

What does HFS resemble?

A

Human theta rhythm

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32
Q

Characterise LTP.

A

Specific - only increases sensitivity from HFS inputs; co-operative - two converging pathways can both be strengthened if they fire together

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33
Q

What is the MOA of LTP?

A

Could be pre-synaptic, but evidence suggests often a post-synaptic Ca involvement

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34
Q

How might NMDA receptors be involved in LTP?

A

Blocked by Mg, it needs dislodging before Ca can enter - pre-stimulation required

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35
Q

What two phases can LTP be split into, and what are their differences?

A

Early - don’t need protein synthesis; late - may need protein synthesis

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36
Q

How does early LTP occur?

A

Through NMDAR - allows Ca in

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37
Q

What are NMDAR also known as?

A

Glutamate receptors

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38
Q

How does early LTP passage of Ca into the cell cause LTP?

A

Activates CaMKII, PSD and constant activation of autophosphorylation by multiple catalytic subunits

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39
Q

What does CaMKII stand for?

A

Calmodulin kinase II

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40
Q

What does PSD stand for?

A

Post-Synpatic Density (protein)

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41
Q

Characterise late LTP.

A

Needs protein synthesis, takes effect approx 1 hour after initiation, cAMP signalling may be critical

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42
Q

How is LTP linked to memory?

A

Inhibition of LTP inhibits some memory formation, drugs that enhance memory also enhance LTP

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43
Q

What is the name given to memory enhancing drugs?

A

Nootropics

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44
Q

Why isn’t LTP everything about memory?

A

LTP is no sufficient to create all memories

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45
Q

What does LTD stand for?

A

Long term depression

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46
Q

What is LTD?

A

Actively evoked, long lasting reduction in synaptic efficacy

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47
Q

What is LTP?

A

Actively evoked, long lasting increase in synaptic efficacy

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48
Q

What are the two main types of LTD?

A

Depotentiation - removal of previous potentiation; LTD denovo - no previous potentiation

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49
Q

What two forms can LTD take?

A

Hebbian - monosynaptic; non-hebbian - heterosynaptic not requiring pre-synaptic activity

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50
Q

What are the general mechanisms for LTD induction?

A

NMDAR, LFS, Ca influx, diffuse transmitters - neuro-modulators

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51
Q

What kind of drug is anandamide?

A

Endocannabinoid

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52
Q

What are the cerebellar LTD inputs?

A

Positive mossy fibres and climbing fibres

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53
Q

What are the cerebellar LTD output?

A

Purkinje fibres

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54
Q

What are the two cerebellar LTD pathways to Purkinje cells?

A

Mossy fibres - granule cells - Purkinje cells; climbing fibres - Purkinje cells

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55
Q

What causes LTD at Purkinje cells?

A

Paired PF and CF inputs to a single Purkinje cell

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56
Q

Cerebellar LTD MOA?

A

Not NMDAR - Glu-R/AMPA-R/Ca-v

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57
Q

Outline the cerebellar LTD cascade.

A

PF activates AMPA+GPCR - Ca influx - PKC activation - receptors pulled from surface - reduced strength of synapse

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58
Q

What evidence is there for the current cerebellar LTD cascade?

A

Endocytosis inhibition prevents LTD

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59
Q

What is does the BCM theory stand for?

A

Bienenstock, Cooper, Monroe theory

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60
Q

What is the BCM theory?

A

Synapses that are active when the rest of the cell isn’t get weakened

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61
Q

Where does hippocampal LTD occur?

A

CA3-CA1 synapse

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62
Q

What determines the probability of inducting LTP and LTD?

A

Degree of NMDA receptor activation - low = LTD, high = LTP

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63
Q

Does LTP+LTD=memory?

A

No - memory = distributed, structural changes

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64
Q

What is the key role of the hippocampus in memory?

A

Formation of new associations and passing on for storage if appropriate

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65
Q

What focuses the inverted image on the retina?

A

Cornea and lens

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66
Q

What is the name given to the aperture of the eye?

A

Pupil

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67
Q

How many classes of photoreceptor are on the eye?

A

2

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68
Q

How can the retina be described, and why?

A

Duplex retina - two types of photoreceptor

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69
Q

What are the two types of photoreceptor?

A

Rods and cones

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70
Q

What is the number of the two types of photoreceptor?

A

5million cones, 100 million rods

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71
Q

What is photopic vision?

A

Daylight vision

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72
Q

What is scotopic vision?

A

Night vision

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73
Q

What is mesopic vision?

A

Dusk vision

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74
Q

What is another term for night vision?

A

Scotopic vision

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75
Q

What is another temr for dusk vision?

A

Mesopic vision

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76
Q

What is another term for daylight vision?

A

Photopic vision

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77
Q

What photoreceptors are responsible for mesopic vision?

A

Rods

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78
Q

What photoreceptors are responsible for scotopic vision?

A

Rods

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79
Q

What photoreceptors are responsible for photopic vision?

A

Cones

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80
Q

What is the term given to the region of retina with macimum resolution?

A

Fovea

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81
Q

Why does the fovea convey our most acute vision?

A

Highest density of cones

82
Q

What are photoreceptors generally processed by?

A

Retinal interneuons

83
Q

Where is the photoreceptor signal output to after retinal interneurons?

A

Ganglion cells in the optic nerve

84
Q

How many ganglion cells are there?

A

1.5 million

85
Q

Name the ‘thalamic relay station’ in conscious image perception.

A

LGN - lateral geniculate nucleus

86
Q

What does LGN stand for?

A

Lateral geniculate nucleus

87
Q

What are the five key projection destinations in the visual system?

A

Visual cortex, LGN, superior colliculus, pretectal region, hypothalamus

88
Q

What do pathways projecting to the superior colliculus do?

A

Control eye movements

89
Q

What do pathways projecting to the pretectal region do?

A

Control pupil

90
Q

What do pathways projecting to the hypothalamus do?

A

Entrain circadian rhythms

91
Q

What is the range of visible light?

92
Q

What are the four key variables of light?

A

Intensity, wavelength, space and time

93
Q

Light from a source is quantified as what?

A

Illuminance

94
Q

Light reflected from objects is quantified as what?

95
Q

What is illuminance a measure of?

A

Light from a source

96
Q

What is luminance a measure of?

A

Light reflected from an object

97
Q

What is the unit of illuminance?

98
Q

What is the unit of luminance?

99
Q

What is the range of light intensity in the environment?

100
Q

Why is the massive range of light intensity found in the environment an issue for the eye?

A

It must adapt to cover this range

101
Q

By how much does the reflectance of natural objects vary?

102
Q

Reflectance is independent of what?

A

Illuminance

103
Q

What measure of stimulus strenght is used?

A

Relative intensity - contrast

104
Q

What is relative intensity also known as?

105
Q

What is contrast also known as?

A

Relative intensity

106
Q

Define the formula of contrast.

A

Difference in intensity / mean background intensity

107
Q

What range of luminance is photopic vision?

A

10^10 - 10^0

108
Q

What range of luminance is mesopic vision?

A

10^0 - 10^-3

109
Q

What range of luminance is scotopic vision?

A

10^-3 - 10^-6

110
Q

What does the diffraction limit mean for optics?

A

Even with a perfect lens, the image of a point source is a round blur

111
Q

What is the formula for the blur diameter as a result of the diffraction limit?

A

SEE PAD 28

112
Q

What three lens aberrations further affect the image on the retina?

A

Spherical, chromatic, glare

113
Q

Characterise spherical aberrations.

A

For a spherical surface, rays towards the edge are more strongly refracted

114
Q

Characterise chromatic aberrations.

A

Different colours focus at different depths

115
Q

Characterise glare.

A

Small particles in the optical media scatter light, reducing the contrast

116
Q

What colour is the human eye well focused for?

117
Q

What colour is the human eye poorly focused for?

118
Q

Draw a spherical aberration

A

SEE PAD 29

119
Q

Draw a chromatic aberration

A

SEE PAD 30

120
Q

Draw glare

A

SEE PAD 31

121
Q

What is the term given to the eye if an object at infinity is sharply focused?

A

Emmetropic

122
Q

What does emmetropic mean?

A

Describes the eye if an object at infinity is sharply focused

123
Q

What is the term given to the eye if an object at infinity is NOT sharply focused?

124
Q

What does ametropic mean?

A

Describes the eye if an object at infinity is NOT sharply focused

125
Q

What is short-sightedness also known as?

126
Q

What is myopia also known as?

A

Short-sightedness

127
Q

What is the incidence of myopia?

128
Q

What is long-sightedness also known as?

A

Hypermetropia

129
Q

What is hypermetropia also known as?

A

Long-sightedness

130
Q

What is the incidence of hypermetropia?

131
Q

Draw refraction in a myopic eye.

A

SEE PAD 32

132
Q

Draw refraction in a hypermetropic eye

A

SEE PAD 33

133
Q

What type of lens correct myopia?

A

Diverging lens

134
Q

What type of lens corrects hypermetropia?

A

Converging lens

135
Q

What is a diverging lens also known as?

A

Concave lens

136
Q

What is a converging lens also known as?

A

Convex lens

137
Q

Draw converging lens correction of hypermetropia

A

SEE PAD 34

138
Q

Draw diverging lens correction of myopia

A

SEE PAD 35

139
Q

What does myopia predispose you to?

A

Retinal detachment, degeneration and glaucoma

140
Q

When does myopia combine with presbyopia?

A

Later in life

141
Q

What treats myopia and presbyopia?

A

Bifocal lenses

142
Q

Why would you need bifocal lenses?

A

If you had myopia and presbyopia

143
Q

What is presbyopia?

A

Decrease in lens elasticity with age, leading to hypermetropia

144
Q

What is the eye’s two point resolution break down point?

A

0.5 arc min

145
Q

What is the linespread function?

A

Definition of optical performance - intensity distribution in the image of point or line

146
Q

What is the key variable in the detail of an optical image?

A

Grain - photoreceptor spacing

147
Q

What is the ideal receptor spacing?

A

Half the width of the linespread function

148
Q

Why is the ideal grain of the eye half the width of the linespread function?

A

So image detail is not sacrificed

149
Q

Where in the eye is the ideal grain achieved?

150
Q

How is the ideal grain achieved in the fovea?

A

Small separation distances and precise mosaic to maximise packing

151
Q

What is the power or strength of the lens expressed as?

152
Q

What are dioptres?

A

The units used to measure the of power or strength of a lens

153
Q

What formula defines a dioptre?

A

SEE PAD 36

154
Q

What is the power and refractive index of the front of the cornea?

A

48.7 and 1.376

155
Q

What is the power and refractive index of the back of the cornea?

A

minus 5.9 and 1.336

156
Q

What is the power of the relaxed lens front?

157
Q

What is the power of the accommodated lens front?

158
Q

What is the refractive index of the lens front?

159
Q

What is the refractive index of the lens back?

160
Q

What is the power of the accommodated lens back?

161
Q

What is the power of the relaxed lens back?

162
Q

Does the power of the cornea change with acommodation?

A

No - it doesn’t accommodate

163
Q

How thick is the cornea?

A

650 micrometers

164
Q

What does the cornea consist of?

A

Stroma sandwiched between an epithelium and endothelium

165
Q

What is the corneal stroma?

A

Thick layer of transparent collagen fibrils

166
Q

What is the lens made from?

A

Long ribbon-like cells, added from the periphery

167
Q

The lens is added to from the periphery over time - what does this mean about it’s structure?

A

Denser in the middle, thus corrects spherical aberration

168
Q

What is a cataract?

A

Clouding of the lens

169
Q

What does the lens absorb?

A

UV, and increasingly over time, blue

170
Q

How is transparency of the cornea and lens assured?

171
Q

What provides nutrients to the cornea and lens?

A

Aqueous humour

172
Q

What secretes the aqueous humour?

A

Epithelium of the ciliary body

173
Q

What drains the aqueous humour?

A

Trabecular meshwork and Canal of Schlemm

174
Q

What is glaucoma?

A

Increased pressure in the eye as a result of a reduction in rate of outflow of aqueous humour

175
Q

What is meant by accommodation?

A

Changes in the lens’ focal length to focus on objects and different distances

176
Q

How is accommodatio brought about?

A

Combination of radial and elastic ligaments - suspensory ligaments and circular ciliary muscle

177
Q

What are the suspensory ligaments also known as?

178
Q

When is the lens relaxed?

A

When unaccommodated

179
Q

Describe the optical power of the relaxed lens.

180
Q

Describe the optical power of the accommodated lens.

181
Q

When is the lens accommodated?

A

When objects are closer - ciliary muscles contract

182
Q

What controls the ciliary muscle?

183
Q

What nerve supplies the ciliary muscle?

A

Oculomotor

184
Q

What is accommodation associated with, and why?

A

Constriction of the pupil to improve depth of focus; convergence of the eyes to fixate on new target

185
Q

What is convergence of the eyes known as?

A

Near reflex

186
Q

What is the response to focussing on a near object known as, and why?

A

Triple response - accommodation, pupil constriction and convergence

187
Q

What does the iris comprise of?

A

Two antagonisic smooth muscles under ANS control

188
Q

What are the to iris smooth muscles, and what controls them?

A

Sphincter - PSS; dilator - SS

189
Q

What mainly determines pupil diameter?

190
Q

Describe the control circuit for pupil constriction/dilation control.

A

Projection from retina - pretectum (midbrain) - bilateral projection to preganglionic PSS neurons (Edinger-Westphal nucleus) - occulomotor nerve - ciliary ganglion - sphincter muscle

191
Q

What does the bilateral projection in pupillary control result in?

A

Increased intensity in one eye (direct) causes constriction in both (consensual)

192
Q

What photoreceptor is concentrated in the fovea?

193
Q

In which layer are the photoreceptors?

A

The one furthest from the light

194
Q

What do the layers on top of the photoreceptors contain?

A

Interneurons

195
Q

What do the layers on top of the photoreceptors do to the light?

A

Scatter it - causing glare

196
Q

What is different about the layers in the fovea?

A

Interneurons are pushed to one side

197
Q

What is the foveola?

A

Point with the highest acuity

198
Q

How large is the foveola?

A

260 micrometers

199
Q

What is the composition of the foveola?

A

Avascular and rod free

200
Q

What is the cone spacing in the foveola?

A

0.5 min of an arc (3 micrometres)

Y2S1 - Brain and Behaviour (4 decks)

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