Booklet 3 - Secularisation, Globalisation And Ideology Flashcards
How does Wilson define secularisation?
The process where-by religious thinking, practice and institutions lose social significance.
What are the 3 ways secularisation can be seen?
- Religious thinking.
- Religious practice.
- Religious institutions.
Religious thinking
Religious beliefs and affiliation - whether people see themselves as a religious person or believe in things like life after death, God, spirits etc.
Religious practice
Religious commitment and participation - whether people actively participate in acts of religious worship and devotion.
Religious institutions
The extent to which religious institutions have maintained their social influence in wider society - whether they influence day to day running of society.
What is a key theoretical issue within secularisation?
How religion can be defined.
What are the 2 ways religion can be defined as?
Exclusivist and inclusivist.
What is less likely to be seen if religion is defined ‘broadly’.
A decline in religion as there s always likely to be some form of activity going on which fits this definition of religious e.g. Civil religions, New Age Movements.
What does Aldridge suggest evidence for the continued existence of religion tells us?
Nothing about the world but it is a mere trick of definition.
What is measuring secularisation based on?
Assumptions about some past golden age faith when nearly everyone believed in God and went to church regularly.
Why are there problems when referencing the past church attendance/ religious activity?
- There are sparse historical records about religion.
- Data collection methods weren’t as reliable/ sophisticated.
- No opinion polls/ surveys to explore whether people believed in God or why they attended church.
- Most people even 150 years ago couldn’t read or write so the few records that exist are based on views of a small privileged section of the population and probably tell us little about religiosity of ordinary people.
- First census 1851 showed only 40% of the adult population attended church.
Why is validity a methodological problem when sociologists measure secularisation?
- Statistics aren’t always interpreted accurately e.g. high participation doesn’t mean strong beliefs as church attendance has historically been linked to social mobility - Martin
- Low participation doesn’t mean lack of belief - could suggest privatisation of faith.
- Different troupes use different criteria to measure attendance e.g. CofE uses the number of baptisms.
Why is reliability a methodological problem when measuring secularisation?-
- Data collection methods vary over time - qualitative v quantitative data must be taken into account.
- Wording of questions impact the overall picture - 68% had religion in a closed question on the 2011 census (what is your religion?) but only 29% in YouGov poll (are you religious?).
Why’s is representativeness a methodological problem when measuring secularisation?
- Surveys don’t always have a large number of respondents especially when questions about religion are optional e.g. census.
- Questions are also sometimes not taken seriously (0.7% Jediknights in the 2001 census.
- Christianity is declining but non-trinitarian groups e.g. Islam, NRMs and New Age are continuing to increase - hard to paint an overall picture.
What is the evidence for secularisation?
- 1851 - 40% of the UK population attended church this decreased to 11.1% in 1980, 6.6% in 2005 and 5% in 2015.
- Between 1983 and 2018 the proportion of adults identifying as Christian fell by 40% (BSA survey 2018) - most noticeable in large organisations.
- Crockett aging population of believers suggests continual decline.
- 1971 - 60% of weddings were in church which went down to 30% in 2012.
- The number of catholic baptisms has more than halved between 1964 and 2012 - many to get into good schools.
- Number of clergy has declined - 45,000 to 35,000 in the 20th century.
- Number of Catholic priests have fallen by a third between 1965 and 2011 - ordination down by 90% since 1965.
- Clergy are an ageing population - 88% Anglican clergy are 40+.
- Lack of clergy in local communities means the day to day influence of churches are reduced.
What is rationalisation?
The process by which rational ways of thinking abd acting come to replace religious ones.
What does Weber argue the Protestant reformation started?
The process of rationalisation in the west which led to the replacement of religious ideology with the rational scientific outlook found in modern society.
What does Weber argue reformation brought about?
Disenchantment - people moved away from magical ways of thinking e.g. instead of an interventionist God, Protestantism saw god as transcendent.
What were events no longer explained by due to rationalisation?
The work of unpredictable supernatural beings but instead were predictable workings of natural forces.
What did rationality enable?
Science/ reason to thrive and provide the basis for technological advances that hive humans more power thus undermining the religious worldview.
What did rationalisation include?
A move from religiosity motivated action towards a scientific motive.
What are the criticisms of rationality?
- Bruce - although science and tech has challenged some religious beliefs people may still turn to religion when tech fails or intimidates - compensator.
- Postmodernists point out that some people are sceptical of the promises science has made and thinks science has made the world a riskier place - WMDs, pollution, speeding up climate change, dangers of modern transport etc.
- The rise of New Age and other global religions as well as the continued influence of the Christian Right in the USA shows that religion is still important to many.
What does Bruce argue the growth of a technological worldview has replaced?
Religious/ supernatural explanations of why things happen e.g. natural disasters are now explained as a natural phenomenon rather than acts of a God.
What does religion explain?
Things science cant e.g. incurable illnesses - therefore science and tech have replaced religious explanations and people tend to take religion less seriously.
What does Bruce’s idea of a technological worldview follow on from?
Weber’s desacralisation of consciousness - loss of the capacity to experience a sense of sacredness and mystery in life.’
As alternative sources of knowledge increase what happens to religious institutions?
They are replaced as monopolies of truth.
What has a greater influence on peoples thinking than religion?
The internet and the media.
What does Bruce suggest religious beliefs have been?
Marginalised - moved to peoples private lives rather than having a wider public impact which has decreased the influence of religious morality as a result.
What did Halman and Draulans find?
More globalised society became - measured in terms of IT facilities e.g. internet access- the less religious the people in the country were.
Decline of metanarratives
Postmodernists like Lyotard argue metanarratives like religion have lost power which influences how people think about, interpret and explain the world:
People take more control over their own lives and beliefs.
In consumer-driven societies people are choosing to create their own pick n mix cocktail of beliefs, centred on themselves after shopping around in the spiritual supermarket.
Religion is now just one form of belief competing with many others.
As a result of marginalisation/ privatisation of religion what have instructions become?
‘Disengaged’ from wider society.
How did Parsons see the the marginalisation/ privatisation of religion?
A part of a process of structural differentiation whereby new, more specialised social institutions emerge to take over functions that were once performed by a single institution.
What is an example of privatisation?
Education, law, welfare, care for the sick, unemployed etc used to be provided by the church but are now split between a range of specialised state and welfare agencies.
Although faith schools exist they must still teach the national curriculum.
What are the 2 functions of religion according to Parsons?
- Creating the basis of morality and the legal system.
- Acting as a mechanism of adjustment.
What has industrialisation and urbanisation led to?
A decline of small communities which share values and rituals.
What can higher levels of cultural diversity undermine?
The plausibility of beliefs.
Decline of community
- Contributes to the decline of religion.
- Wilson - pre-industrial communities shared values were expressed through collective religious rituals that integrated people and regulated their behaviour.
- When religion lost its basis it lost its vitality and hold over individuals.
Industrialisation
- Bruce - undermining the consensus of religious beliefs that hold small rural communities together.
- Give way to large loose knit communities with diverse beliefs and values.
- Social and geographical mobility breaks up communities and brings people together from many different backgrounds creating more diversity.
Diversity of lifestyle
- Can undermine religion.
- Even where people continue to hold religious beliefs they cant avoid knowing many around them hold different views.
- Bruce - plausibility of beliefs is undermined by alternatives and individuals because plausibility of religion depends on the existence of a practicing community of believers.
- In the absence of a practicing religious community that functions on a day-day basis both religious belief and practice tend to decline.
Criticisms of social and cultural diversity
- Aldrige - community doesn’t have to be in a particular area:
- Religion can be a source of identity on a worldwide scale.
- This is true of Jewish, Hindu and Muslim communities.
- Some religious communities are imagined communities that interact through the use of global media.
- Pentecostal and other religious groups often flourish in supposedly ‘impersonal’ urban areas.
What does Berger say another cause of secularisation is?
The trend towards religious diversity where instead of there being only one religious organisation and only one interpretation of the faith, there are many.
Since the reformation what hasn’t the sacred canopy provided?
A singular church - religious diversity creates a variety of perceptions of the truth undermining traditional religions.
What does Berger argue diversity undermines?
Religions plausibility structure - the reasons why people find it believable.
When there are alternative versions of religion to choose between people are likely to question all of them.
Bruce 2 situations in which religion can survive and prevent secularisation
- Cultural defence - religion provides a focal point for the defence of national, ethnic, local or group identity in a struggle against external forces such as a hostile foreign power e.g. troubles in Northern Ireland.
- Cultural transition - religion provides support and a sense of community for people who have migrated to a different country e.g. Irish, African Caribbean, Muslim, Hindu and other migrants to the UK - religion provides a sense of community for groups.
Bruce uses this to argue that religion only survives if they become a focal point for a group identity.
Religions that don’t have a function will die and lead to more secularisation e.g. Religion loses importance to migrants once they integrate into society.
What have religious organisations been forced to do to survive in a secular society?
Move away from traditional/ supernatural doctrines and have watered down their beliefs - Herberg - secularisation from within - showing weakness.
What are some examples of Herberg’s secularisation from within?
- Amish using more tech.
- CofE allowing women leaders, divorce and LGBT marriage.
- Moving away from spiritual miracles - less emphasis.
- Less focus on overt evangelism.
What is Bryman’s disneyization?
The transformation of something into a simplified, trivialised version of its original form to create an inoffensive neutral product resembling Disney brands.
What is religion forced to do in postmodern society?
Market and package itself to appeal customers as it competes with other consumer products and leisure activities which is done by blending religion, consumerism and popular culture, trivialising it and placing emphasis on fun and amusement and merchandising itself to avoid decline.
What does Disneyfication work well to explain?
Denominations, cults and new age movements which make use of celebrity influencers.
How can secularisation theories be criticised using religious belief and practices?
Not all denominations/ churches are declining - associated with NRMs and New Age is continually growing.
Whilst traditional religions are declining in the UK it’s not the same picture worldwide - Christianity is growing in South America, Africa, Asia and much of Eastern Europe.
How can secularisation theories be criticised using religious institutions?
CofE remains the official church in england with 26 bishops in the house of lords.
They are one of the largest property owners in the UK.
Faith schools remain strong in the UK - daily prayer and RE are compulsory parts of the national curriculum.
What does Davie argue we are seeing?
A major change in religion away from obligation towards consumption/ choice.
How is religion different today?
It’s not inherited or imposed but is a matter of personal choice.
What does the decline in church attendance today not necessarily show?
A decline in belief only a decline in social pressure to attend church.
How is religion taking a different form?
Religion is taking a different, privatised form.
People are reluctant to belong to organisations or institutions. But people still hold religious beliefs - believing without belonging.
What trend does Davie note?
A vicarious religion - religion practiced by an active minority on behalf of the great majority.
How does Davie describe the major national churches in Europe being seen as?
Public utilities that is there for everyone to use whenever they need to.
The rites of passages e.g. baptisms and funerals as well as for major national occasions such as royal weddings.
Criticisms of DAvie
- The number of people who believe in god is decreasing along with attendance. This wouldn’t happen if Davie was correct.
- Day - 2011 census showed 63% of people identified themselves as Christian supporting the ‘ believing without belonging’ view. However Day found few Christian’s she interviewed mentioned God. Rather they described themselves as ‘Christian’ as a non-religious marker of their ethic or national identity. Bay - they believe in belonging.
What does hervieu-Leger claim religion is?
Not declining but evolving, moving from a community identity to a privatised, personal source of identity.
Spiritual shopping - Hervieu-Leger
- Cultural amnesia through the lack of religious education has caused a growth in personal choice with religion - part of identity choices.
- Religion hasn’t disappeared but has changed into a consumer society.
- Religious types - ‘pilgrims’ are on an individual path of self discovery (new age) and ‘converts’ are looking for a sense of belonging and community that is missing in wider society.
Hervieu-Leger - The New Age
- Decline in traditional religions allows NRMs to grow and be sampled by consumers.
- People can construct their own personal belief system.
- Religion is evolving due to focus on individualism - resacrilisation.
- New Age has been called ‘self spirituality’ as it focuses on growth, autonomy and the inner self.
Hervieu-Leger criticisms
- Scale - growth of self religion doesnt fill the gap of overall decline.
- Socialisation - it isn’t successfully passed through generations.
- Weak commitment - spiritual shopping is generally weak commitment as people set their own expectations.
- Structural weakness - individualised religion can cause secularisation due to the lack of external power and cohesion.
Religion as a compensator
Religion is attractive because it provides us with compensators when real rewards are scarce/ unobtainable. Religion compensates by promising supernatural ones eg. Immortality.
Religion also answers big questions like ‘why am i poor?’ Or ‘ Why am i suffering?’ Which provides psychological comfort/ rewards.
The religious cycle
- Decline - religious participation declines e.g. traditional religions like CofE.
- Revival - sects, cults, New age fill the gap and attract new followers.
- Renewal - Religious participation increases and is high.
How do Stark and Bainbridge see secularisation theory?
Eurocentric - focuses on the decline of religion in Europe and fails to explain its continuing vitality in America and elsewhere.
What do Stark and Bainbridge propose?
Religious market theory which is based on two assumptions:
1. People are naturally religious and religion meets human needs. Therefore the overall demand for religion remains constant even though demand for particular types of religions may vary.
2. It is human nature to seek rewards and avoid costs. When people make choices they weigh up the costs and benefits of the different options available.
What do Stark and colleagues suggest people make?
Rational choices when buying/ consuming religion making a cost/benefit analysis before choosing whether or not it is in their ineterest to participate in religious activities.
What are the costs and benefits of buying/ consuming a religion?
Costs = financial donations, time commitment and any tensions with wider society.
Benefits = rewards or compensators, such as reduced stress and tension, spiritual fulfilment, salvation, life after death, community and status.
What religious organisations grow?
Those which supply and market attractive religious products and adapt their products to the demands of their potential customers in the spiritual supermarket.
European social survey
- Europe says religion is less important than USA.
- US states attend services more weekly than European countries.
What does the US constitution guarantee?
Freedom of religion which allows for the growth of many religious organisations which leads to a healthy religious marketplace.
Europe has been dominated by state religions so competition is low leading yo decline.
Religious marketplace theory evaluation
- Bruce - stats show diversity has been accompanied by religious decline in Europe and America. Secularisation theory claims religion is in long-term decline as does religious marketplace theory.
- Norris and Inglehart - point out contradictions - high levels of religious participation exist in Catholic countries where the church has a near monopoly but countries with religious pluralism often have low levels of participation.
- Sharot argue the theory:
- Makes little reference to religions other than mainstream Christianity - cant be applied to NRMs and other form of religion.
- Only applies to the USA and is unable to account for levels and patterns of religiosity elsewhere, particularly in non-western societies.
What do Norris and Inglehart argue one major function of religion is?
To provide a sense of confidence and predictability in a threatening and uncertain world - where there are low levels of existential security.
What does religion meet?
A need for security and therefore societies where people feel secure have a low level of demand for religion.
Why do poor societies have high levels of religiosity?
They have high levels of insecurity.
Why are poor people who live in rich societies more religious?
They face greater insecurity.
Why do rich societies have lower levels of religiosity?
People have a higher standard of living and a greater sense of security.
Evidence of the existential security theory
- America and Brazil don’t match the trend as they have a a high GDP and yet have high levels of religiosity.
- Honduras, Uganda and Ethiopia follow the trend as they have the lowest GDP and yet the highest rates of religiosity.
What does existential security theory claim the demand for religion isn’t?
Constant and explains different global levels of secularisation.
Why does the existential security theory claim religion wont disappear?
Partially because existential security is always threatened but also because poorer countries have a higher birth rate. Whist richer countries have declining birth rates leading to increased secularisation other countries are becoming more religious.
Existential security theory evaluation:
- The USA doesn’t fit the trend - it has a declining birth rate and a higher GDP per capita compared to many European countries however religiosity remains high (75% of US identified as religious vs 56.9% in the UK in 2021).
- However it can be argued that the sharp social/ financial inequalities in the US alongside poor welfare and healthcare leads to higher levels of poverty and insecurity therefore religiosity in the US is still explained.
- Vasques argues they only use quantitative data about income levels: they don’t examine peoples own definitions of existential security - qualitative data is also needed.
- Norris and Inglehart only see religion as a negative response to deprivation. They ignore the positive reasons people have for religious participation and appeal some types of religion have for the wealthy.
What is globalisation?
An ongoing process which involves growing interconnectedness of societies around the world with the spread of the same culture, consumer goods and economic interests across the globe.
What has caused different cultures and religions to be in closer contact than ever before?
Factors such as the globalised media, the internet and social networking sites, cheaper/ faster travel, mass tourism and migration.
What does Meyer et al suggest globalisation means?
Religions are becoming less tied to geographical locations or the histories and cultures of particular nations and ethnic groups - there has been a process of cultural globalisation and a deterritorialisation of religion.
What have religious beliefs and organisations become part of?
Global religious systems.
What does Singleton point to as being a major factor in the growth and spread of Islam?
Deterritorialisation - Islam has become a transnational religion which is no longer tied to one geographical area/ culture.
What was the estimated number of Muslims for 2020 and what was the exact number in 2022?
Estimated number - 24.9%
Exact number - 25.8%
What does Ummah in Islam mean?
Every Muslim has a duty to other Muslims.
What is the Ummah?
A supra-national worldwide community of faith with shared doctrines, beliefs and practices and a collective identity that transcends national boarders, cultures and ethnicities.
How does Singleton illustrate the ummah?
The publication in 2005 of cartoons of the prophet Muhammad in a Danish newspaper which was regarded as insulting to the Prophet and led to worldwide protests - a global response reflecting the collective identity among the worlds Muslims who despite cultural diversity were unified by the global ummah.
What did Hurrington suggest globalisation of religion can cause?
Conflict:
- Conflicting values - religious values can come into conflict with governments, societies and other religions. Hurrington points to the rise in Islamic fundamentalism as an example.
- Revitalisation - Kurtz ‘culture wars’ between groups framed as a struggle between good and evil. Religion is a source of anxiety/ discrimination like race.
- Declining religious freedom - Ben-Nun Bloom et al suggests growing religious groups are seen as a threat. Countries are interfering with worship and regulating religious symbols and literature.
How has globalisation affected the collective conscience?
Globalisation can aid establishment of collective conscience worldwide e.g. ummah with shared values. However it can also disrupt collective consciences due to religious versify across communities and easy access to new ideas.
How has globalisation affected the psychological value of religion?
Increased insecurity due to uncertainty of globalisation can strengthen the psychological needs for religion (rise of religion in LEDCs).
How has globalisation affected the cultural transition and defence of religion?
People aim to maintain identity.
How has globalisation affected civil religions?
The growth of civil religions can aid stability in a globalised world and its easier due to national media.
Case study: Hindu ultra-nationalism
- Political and ideological movement.
- Promotes Hindu identity and culture - India should be based on Hindu values.
- Gained prominence due to globalisation - allowed Hindu nationalist ideas to spread beyond India’s boarders influencing diaspora communities.
- Pew Global Attitude Survey found 93% of Indians agreed with statement ‘ our people aren’t perfect, but our culture is superior to others.’
- Nanda - Indias success in the global market is increasingly attributed to the superiority of Hindu values which is constantly promoted by the media and politicians along with the idea that Hinduism is the essence of Indian culture and identity.
- worshipping Hindu gods is the same as worshipping India.
- Hinduism has become a civil religion.
- Nanda - creating a widening guild between Hindus and non-Hindu minorities.
Why has religion acting as a force for social change increased?
Due to globalisation.
What can create conflict and why?
Multicultural societies due to contrasting values, beliefs and practices etc.
What can be used to raise awareness of inequalities and campaign for change?
Internet and global media.
What allows social protest?
Technological advances and ease of movement.
What can it be argued that secularisation minimises?
The role of religion in promoting social change and lessens the functions of religion as a whole.
Globalisation and religious participation - ethnicity
Minority ethnic groups can cling to religious identity in the face of globalisation and rapid change.
This leads to higher levels of religiosity as people seek social solidarity when facing challenges.
Global communication can strengthen or undermine religious identity.
Sometimes religions are blended or created in new forms to reflect diversity (growth of Pentecostalism in the UK.)
Globalisation and religious participation - age
Lower levels of religiosity in young people could be due to engagement with mass media.
Greater exposure to a range of ideologies including secular ideas which challenge religious doctrines.
Globalisation and religious participation - social class
Globalisation can amplify disparities within and between countries.
Economic benefits of globalisation aren’t shared equally as large corporations gain most of the wealth.
Religion becomes more appealing to lower classes as a form of compensation.
How does globalisation contribute to secularisation?
- Globalisation brings new knowledge, thus furthering Weber’s idea of rationalisation.
- Globalisation has encouraged a technological worldview (Bruce) replacing religious ideas with scientific explanations - privatising religion.
- Consumer driven society leads to simplified religion that is trivialised and marketed (disneyization - Bryman).
- Structural differentiation - as social institutions are connected and spread the remove the role of religion (Parsons).
- Berger says religious diversity undermines the sacred canopy as perceptions of the truth are fragmented and competing - plausibility structure.
How does globalisation combat secularisation?
- Spiritual shopping (Hervieu-Lerger) - consumer driven society and easy access to a variety of beliefs means people are creating their own personal belief system. Religion is evolving due to globalisation.
- Religious marketplace theory (Stark and Bainbridge) - globalisation leads to increased competition and therefore participation in religious market place.
- Existential security theory (Norris and Inglehart) - globalisation and particularly the use of mass media highlights significant inequalities in society, whether political, social or economic. This can lead to a higher level of religiosity in some countries as people search for a sense of security.
What does fundamentalism refer to?
A strict adherence to a set of religious or ideological beliefs, often characterised by a literal interpretation of sacred texts and a desire to return to what is considered the ‘fundamentals’ or original principles of that belief system.
What can fundamentalism be seen as?
A conservative force in terms of preserving traditional values but is also a radical force for change in terms of bringing social change.
Where can fundamentalism be found across different religions and areas?
- Christian groups in Europe and the USA (e.g. New Christian Right).
- Jewish Zionist in Israel Islamic fundamentalists (e.g. Al Qaeda) across Middle East.
- Hindu fundamentalists (BJP) in India.
Bruce - characteristics of fundamentalism
- Literalism - a literal interpretation of religious texts which govern a believers life. These can lead to hostility towards other religions as they view their own as correct.
- ‘us and them’ mentality - Davie - Seek to establish control and chaos. They are right and he rest of the world is wrong. Oppose modernisation and secularisation.
- Aggressive reaction - draws attention to perceived threats to their religious beliefs through aggressive action to shock, intimidate or cause harm e.g. bombing abortion clinics in the US.
- Modern technology - although against modern society they tend to use modern tech to achieve their aims (e.g. televangelism, social media).
What does Davie argue fundamentalism occurs?
Where those who old traditional orthodox beliefs and values are threatened by modernity and feel the need to defend themselves against it.
What does GIddens argue that fundamentalism is?
A reaction to globalisation undermining traditional social norms.
In today’s society individuals are constantly faced with choice, uncertainty and risk. The attraction of fundamentalism and its rigid dogmatic beliefs is the certainty it promises in an uncertain world. It is the opposite of cosmopolitanism.
What are the 2 responses to postmodernity according to Castells?
- Resistance identity - a defensive reaction of fundamentalist communities.
- Project identity - the response of those who are movements such as feminism and environmentalism.
How does Bauman see fundamentalism?
As a response to living in post-modernity. Postmodern society brings freedom of choice, uncertainty and a heightened awareness of risk undermining the old certainties about how to live that were grounded in tradition.
In this situation while some embrace the new freedom others are attracted to fundamentalism by its claims of absolute truth and certainty.
Criticisms of fundamentalism
- Beckford criticises Giddens, Bauman and Castells on several grounds:
- They ignore hybrid movements which accept elements of modernity.
- Fixated on fundamentalism ignoring impact of gloablisation on non-fundamentalist religions e.g. Catholicism.
- Giddens ignores differences between fundamentalist groups.
- Giddens description of fundamnetalism as a defensive reaction to modernity ignores the fact that reinventing tradition is also modern, reflexive activity.
How does Bruce regard fundamentalism?
As being confined to monotheistic religions due to belief in an omnipotent being giving clear, authoritative rules.
What criteria means that fundamentalism is most likely to occur?
- Single sacred text.
- Followers have a common enemy (Muslims and the US).
- Little opportunity to express grievances legitimately.
- Ready supply of dedicated recruits (Hamas)
- Lack of centralised authority - allows different interpretations.
What does Bruce suggest fundamentalism has?
Different origins, some are triggered by changes within society (modernity) whilst others are responses to external change (secularisations and globalisation).
Why did Christian fundamentalism emerge?
Changing societal views towards diversity, family life and sexuality. It is increasingly linked to politics in the New Christian Right and aims to make changes to bring a more traditional society.
Why might Islamic fundamentalism be seen as rational?
Defending traditional Islamic beliefs and values threatened by global influences of Western cultural imperialism, the Americanisation of the world’s culture and dominance of Western corporations in the world economy. Bruce called cultural defence against this cultural imperialism.
What features of fundamentalism does Christian fundamentalism show?West Boro Baptist Church
- Literalism - interpreted Bible scripture literally.
- Aggressive reaction - protesting at soldiers funerals.
- Patriarchy - many children dont look to get married
- ‘Us and them’ mentality - they’re the only ones going to heaven
What is religion often at the core of and what does Huntington call this?
- At the core of many global conflicts e.g. 9/11/ War on terror.
- Clash of civilisations.
What are the 7 civilisation Huntington identifies?
- Western
- Latin
- American
- Confucian
- Japanese
- Islamic
- Hindu and Slavic-Orthodox
What are the 3 things HUntingon argues?
- National states are less significant as a source of identity creating a gap religion has filled - globalisation increased contact between civilisations which can cause conflict - us v them mentality.
- Religious differences are harder to resolve than political ones because they are deeply rooted in history and culture.
- The rise in Islamic fundamentalism is a reaction to western civilisation, values and democracy.
Armstrong disagrees with point 3 as there is nothing in Islam which tends towards fundamentalism beliefs - most Islamic leaders were in favour of modernisation but attempts to impose modernisation were too rapid without concern for citizens welfare which built resentments.
What does Armstrong agree with Bruce about?
That Islamic fundamentalism is a reaction to cultural imperialism and economic policy.
Criticism of Huntington
- Jackson - an example of orientalism - western ideology that stereotypes eastern nations and people (especially Muslims) as untrustworthy, inferior or fanatical others and serves to justify exploitation and human rights abuses by the west.
- Casanova - views are simplistic and ignores important religious divisions within civilisations as a grossly misleading Neo-conservative ideology that portrays Islam as an enemy when in reality a tiny minority f the world 1.5 billion Muslims are remotely interested in a holy war against the west.
What does Davie argue recent decades have seen?
Secular forms of modernity linking to the changes in modern society.
What are the 2 phases of secular fundamentalism Davie identifies:
- Enlightenment to the 1960s - Enlightenment thinking seen as a threat to traditional religious beliefs/ certainty and creates religious fundamentalism.
- Since the 1970s - Optimism of enlightenment project has come under attack due to growing pessimism and uncertainty - Liberalism, rationalism, Marxism etc have been undermined.
What are secular ideologies and traditional religions both doing?
Struggling for survivial.
What have some supporters of secular ideologies been attracted to?
Fundamentalism e.g. right wing patriotism in the west.
What is an example of a secular fundamentalist reaction?
France banning religious symbols in schools in 2004 and the veil in 2011.
2015 some councils stopped serving pork alternatives in schools arguing pupils must be treated equally but thus discriminating against Muslims and Jews.
How are beliefs defined?
As ideas about things we hold to be true.
How are belief systems defined?
As any integrated set of ideas which influence the way people see the world - the most important forms are religious, political and scientific.
What is the definition of ideology?
A set of ideas and values shared by a social group that provides a particular way of seeing/ interpreting the world. This view can be distorted, false or incomplete working to justify the interests of the group.
How do Marxists like Althusser see social institutions?
- Producing ruling class ideology and maintaining capitalist hegemony.
- Institutions = ideological state apparatuses.
- Mannheim associated dominant ideology with deliberate obscuring facts to conceal inequalities of capitalist society an preserve existing patters of inequality and the position of the dominant class thus preventing social change that might threaten their interests.
What does ruling class ideology do?
- Distorts reality.
- Produces false consciousness preventing revolution.
- Justifies inequalities.
- Supports the position of the ruling class.
How did Gramsci develop the Marxist view?
- By focusing on hegemony.
- Hegemony = bourgeois control of the production of ideas maintains their power.
- Workers persuaded to adapt to ruling class ideology as part of their own beliefs and values (dual consciousness).
- Workers consent to the rule of the dominant class rather than being forced to obey.
What does patriarchal ideology justify and maintain?
Male dominance and makes it appear normal and natural.
Beliefs about gender advantaging males (men are stronger, logical and women are more nurturing so should take primary responsibility for household).
How do feminists see science and religion?
As promoting patriarchy for generations (blocking from positions of power or tainting them as weak/impure).
How did Marks describe ideas from science?
As being used to exclude women from education - male doctors and scientists claimed educating females would lead to the creation of a new race of Un feminine females and disqualify women from their true vocation - the nurturing of the next generation.
What is a political ideology?
One that provides an analysis and interpretation of how society should work and suggests how power should be used by governments to influence events and change society through policy making and political action e.g. Hindu caste system.
What are examples of political ideology being broad and specific?
Broad = nationalism, liberalism, facism or communism.
Specific = UK political parties, conservatives, labour and Liberal Democrat’s.
How does pluralism view he exercise of power?
As spread amongst competing groups and individuals - no single monopoly or dominant ideology.
What does pluralist ideology suggest?
There are different types of social groups with their own ideology which live alongside each other. Each group has their own way of interpreting and understanding the social world - no one group/ ideology is privileged over one another.
What trap does pluralism fall into?
The trap of stating that there is a broad range of social groups which are approved of but in reality ignoring inequality or undervalued power distribution. It ignores that some social groups are unable to influence those with power to get ideology accepted.
What are the 3 main aspects to a religion?
- Belief in spiritual and supernatural - person, entity or other worldly spiritual force or being of some kind which ultimately provides a sense of meaning and a means of interpreting and explaining the world.
- Faith - strong sense of trust and conviction in a perversion or entity which isn’t based on observable, testable or falsifiable evidence.
- Body of unchanging truth - religions usually contain certain fundamental and Un changeable beliefs e.g. Christ being the Son of God - and new discoveries fit into frameworks but don’t attempt to change them.
Differences between ideologies and belief systems
- Belief systems aren’t always tied to the interests of a social group.
- Ideologies are normally shared by a group, where beliefs and belief systems can be more personal.
- Ideologies don’t necessarily have sacred or supernatural aspects.
Similarities between belief systems and ideologies
- Both offer a way of understanding the world and a sense of truth which can be distorted.
- Marx claims that both:
- Legitimise social inequality and control the population.
- Disguise the true nature of exploitation e.g. inequality is because of sins not exploitation.
- Keep w/c passive - poverty is a virtue which will be rewarded in the future.
Definition of an open belief system
Open to scrutiny, criticism, falsification and testing.
Definition of a closed belief system
Makes knowledge claims that cant be disproved.
Why is religion known as a closed belief system?
- They suggest they know the truth about the world and don’t tolerate those that criticise that truth.
- Can be very conservative and not want change e.g. Catholic views on priesthood.
How can religion be seen as an open belief system?
- Herberg - some religions have diluted beliefs to maintain relevance in modern society e.g. Church of England changing doctrine and allowing female bishops.
Religion as a closed belief system - Azande people
- Horton - religion is a closed belief system.
- Whenever a closed belief system has fundamental beliefs threatened there are several devices which reinforce the system and prevent it from being disproved.
- Rituals bring important social functions and reinforce the society’s way of thinking. There is no societal authority outside of the religion.
- The rituals and practices of the belief system, reinforce the system to the followers. Any evidence seemingly against the beliefs can be ‘explained.’
- If the beige position kills the chickens prior to the oracles judgement it is simply not good benge rather than the ritual itself being false.
- Followers accept the systems basic assumptions e.g. the existence of witchcraft so they cant challenge wider parts of that system.
What does polanyi claim?
That all beliefs systems have 3 devices of protection.
3 devices of protection which belief systems have:
- Circularity - each idea is explained in terms of another.
- Subsidiary explanations - use of other possible explanations.
- Denial of legitimacy to rivals - denial of the claims made by other sources e.g. Creationism in the face of science.
What do many sociologists see modern science as?
The product of rationalisation that began with the Protestant reformation.
What dome sociologists like secularisation theorists argue science has undermined?
Religion by changing the way we think and how we see the world. In this way it can be seen as a belief system.
However like religion it can be seen as an open/ closed system.
Why does society have faith in science?
Because of its breakthroughs in medicine, development of tech has improved life and revolutionised economic productivity.
What does cognitive power make science?
Distinctive - science lets us explain, predict and control the world in a way other belief systems cant.
Why might faith in science be starting to fail?
The creation of many problems: pollution, global warming, WMD.
Karl Popper - science as an open system
- Scientific knowledge isn’t sacred or absolute truth - it can be questioned, criticised or even shown to be false thought the process:
1. Hypothesis formation
2. Falsifiability
3. Prediction
4. Theory formation
5. Peer review - Science is an open belief system as it’s cumulative, developing over time through this method - constantly testing to find new and better ways of understanding the world.
What does Merton argue science can only thrive as?
- A major social institution if it reviewed support from other institutions and values.
- This first occurred in England because of values created by the Protestant reformation especially Puritanism ( a form of Calvinism).
What does science need according to Merton?
An ethos/ set of norms that make scientists act in ways that serve the goal of increasing scientific knowledge.
Merton - 4 norms:
- Communism - scientific knowledge int private property it must be shared with the scientific community otherwise knowledge cant grow.
- Universalism - the truth/ falsity of scientific knowledge is judged by universal, objective criteria (testing) and not by race, sex etc of the scientist who produces it.
- Disinterestedness - being committed to discovering knowledge for its own sake. Having to publish findings makes it harder for scientists to practice fraud, since it allows others to check claims.
- Organised scepticism - no knowledge claim is regarded as scared. Every idea is open to questioning, criticism and objective investigation.
What do Polanyi and Kuhn claim science is?
A closed belief system - it can be influenced by personal values and reject challenges.
Kuhn - paradigm shifts and a closed system
- Science can be seen as a closed system in some contexts as scientists are trained and work within dominant paradigms.
- These colour scientific articles methods and findings.
- During normal science periods the dominant paradigm lays out a broad outline for scientists to fill in like puzzles.
- For the most part dominant paradigms aren’t questioned and act as a closed system/ belief with another.
- Marxists and feminists would support the view of paradigms in science arguing science historically served the interests of the dominant group.
What does Lomas highlight?
How society’s has absolute trust in science:
- Science tells you any object continues to move in a straight line with unchanging speed unless a force acts upon it. Unless you’re an astronaut you’ve never seen this yet believe it to be true.
- Your eyes tell you a chair is solid and you can safely sit on it but science tells you the material of the chair is made up of small parts with spaces between them so in theory you cagoule fall through these spaces.
What did Bruce argue scientific method provide?
The greatest challenge to religion as a belief system as society moved towards modernity with a growing concern with evidence-based causes and effects of natural phenomena rather than the search for the meaning of such phenomena.
What are the 3 stages Comte suggested the transition to modernity consisted of?
- Theological status - supernatural/ superstitious explanations.
- Metaphysical stage - phenomena are explained as arising from the action of more natural entities and forces.
- Positive/ scientific stage - theological and metaphysical explanations are displaced by rational scientific explanations which Weber called ‘disenchantment’.
What does Bruce suggest religious explanations and superstitions are?
Gradually displaced by scientific explanations as many religious beliefs are shown to be false. This will continue until religion ceases to be accepted.
Science has displaced religion in society - agree
- Science tends to be accepted as a trustworthy open belief system compared to religions seemingly conservative/ outdated closed system - POpper’s view of science as cumulative lends to its credibility.
- Growing secularisation suggests role of religion is diminishing.
- Weber’s rationalisation beginning as a result of the reformation marks a change in natural way of thinking away from supernatural elements towards direct human concerns and actions.
- Bruce suggests that in modernity religious explanations are gradually being displaced scientific explanations use to tech worldview e.g. evolution has displaced the biblical account of creation.
Science has displaced religion in society - disagree
- There are numerous examples which demonstrate the continuing power that religion holds on some individuals:
- In 1978, 913 people of the religious sect the peoples temple were convinced by their leader to commit suicide for religious purposes.
- Both Islamic (Taliban) and Christian (New Christian Right) fundamentalism has increased dramatically over the last two decades.
- Many major world religions and NRMs continue to grow - spiritual whooping, growth of New age and other responses to secularisation.
- Self-sustaining belief systems cant be replaced for some believers if religion has such a large impact/ function in someone’s life it’s hard to replace.
