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Beliefs In Society > Booklet 1 - Theories Of Religion > Flashcards

Booklet 1 - Theories Of Religion Flashcards

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Sociology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Functional definition of religion

A

The social and physiological functions it performs for society - integration and comfort

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2
Q

How does Durkheim define religion?

A

In terms of the contribution it makes to social integration rather than any specific belief in God or the supernatural

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3
Q

Yinger definition of religion

A

Identifies functions that religion performs for individuals such as answering ‘ultimate questions’ about the meaning of life and what happens when we die

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4
Q

Substantive definition of religion

A

Focuses on what religion actually is

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5
Q

Weber definition of religion

A

Belief in a superior or supernatural power that is above nature and can’t be explained scientifically

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6
Q

Construct definition of religion

A

The focus is on a process of understanding how a set of beliefs comes to exist

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7
Q

What does Aldridge show about Scientology?

A

For its followers Scientology is a religion whereas several governments have denied legal status as a religion and sought to ban it - shows definitions of religion can be contested and are influenced by who has the power to define a situation

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8
Q

What are the functions of religion according to Durkheim?

A
  1. Social integration/ cohesion
  2. Collective conscience - provides moral values for stability
  3. Agent of secondary socialisation
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9
Q

What are Durkheim 4 main ideas on religion?

A
  1. The sacred and the profane
  2. Totemism
  3. Collective conscience
  4. Cognitive functions
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10
Q

The sacred and the profane

A
  • sacred things inspire feelings of awe, wonder and fear
  • profane = no special significance
  • humans place significance on sacred objects or symbols
  • religion tells us what’s sacred and normal e.g. bottle of wine at mass and at a supermarket
  • religion seperates the profane and sacred
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11
Q

Totemism

A
  • Durkheim studied the Arunta Aboriginal Tribe - worship a totem which is the clans emblem representing their identity or origins
  • rituals reinforce the clans sense of belonging and solidarity
    -Durkheim - when worshipping their totem they are worshipping society - feelings of awe and wonder are the groups power
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12
Q

Collective conscience

A
  • shared norms, values and beliefs and knowledge that make living possible
  • Durkheim - regular rituals and moral codes reinforce the collective conscience and maintain social integration
  • breaking moral codes brings consequences
  • religion helps the individual feel a part of something bigger than themselves
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13
Q

Cognitive functions of religion

A
  • Durkheim believed religion was the origin of concepts and categories we need for reasoning, understanding the world and communication
  • argues people need concepts to make sense of the world and we share these concepts to communicate effectively
  • religion provides these concepts and so religion is the origin of human thought, reason and science
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14
Q

Durkheim on Nationalism

A

Durkheim argues that nationalism was a type of religion - a civil religion because it has similar functions to more conventional religions

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15
Q

Criticisms of Durkheim

A
  • stretched the definition to include beliefs with no supernatural element
  • despite similarities nationalism doesn’t provide ultimate meanings about the purpose of life or explanations of the origin of the universe
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16
Q

What did Malinowski believe about religion

A

He agreed with Durkheim that religion reinforces social norms/ values and promotes social solidarity however religion also has a psychological function

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17
Q

What did Malinowski argue was the main reason for rleigion?

A

to help individuals and society deal with the emotional stresses which occur during life crises e.g. birth or death

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18
Q

What did Malinowski argue was the second function of rleigion?

A

to help people deal with situations or events which could not be fully controlled or predicted.

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19
Q

What are the 2 functions of religion Parsons identifies?

A
  1. Creates and legitimises society’s values - ingrained through socialisation - breaking religious and social rules = a guilty conscience having an almost controlling influence over people
  2. Provides primary source of meaning- answers big questions to maintain a sense of justice and social stability - ‘mechanism of adjustment’ to help people make sense of uncontrollable life events
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20
Q

What did Bellah argue about civil religion?

A

it integrates society in a way other religions and denominations can’t

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21
Q

How do Marxists see religion?

A

As a feature of only class divided society

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22
Q

What is an ideology?

A

A set of values shared by a social group that:
- Provides a particular view of seeing and interpreting the world
- Presents only a particular or incomplete or false view of reality
- Expresses and justifies the interests of a particular group (social or political)

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23
Q

Religion as part of the dominant ideology

A

Marx - bourgeoisie control the creation and spread of ideas through institutions like the church and media
- Dominant ruling class ideology creates a false consciousness preventing the poor from taking action

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24
Q

Power as divinely appointed

A
  • Religious teachings encourage the proletariat to believe the way society is organised is Gods will.
  • Whilst some struggle in this life they are blessed and will be rewarded for their faith.
  • Religion also makes the power of the dominant class appear divinely ordained e.g. 16th century idea of the divine right of the King
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25
Q

Lenin - ‘Spiritual gin’

A
  • Dolled out to confuse the masses and keep them in place
  • The ruling class used religion cynically to create mystical fog which obscured the reality for the working class
  • Like alcohol it causes temporary happiness or glee whilst blurring their wider vision of reality
26
Q

Product of alienation (Marxists)

A
  • Workers are dehumanised repeating menial tasks
  • Religion consoles as it makes virtue out of suffering - the poor = ‘more godly’
  • Religion offers hope of supernatural intervention through prayer
  • Promise of afterlife gives meaning to the repetitive tasks and feelings of hopelessness - there is an end goal (reward) - justification of inequality
27
Q

What does Marx quote ‘opium of the masses’ mean?

A

‘ sigh of the oppressed creature’ - exhausted response to what’s happening.
‘ heart of the heartless world’ + ‘soul of soulless conditions’ = perceived meaning and sense of dignity in the face of oppression so there is no need to fight.
Religion becomes a refuge maintains status quo

28
Q

3 ways religion is like an opiate

A
  1. Dulls pain rather than treating the cause - distracts from the problem doesn’t tackle it.
  2. Gives a distorted world view through promise of afterlife - like opium creates hallucinations.
  3. Temporary high - religious rituals can give a temporary ecstatic feeling like opium.
29
Q

Case study: Legitimisation of inequality - Hindu Caste system
1. What is the Hindu Caste system?

A

Divides Hindus into hierarchal groups based on their karma and dharma

30
Q
  1. What are the main categories of the Hindu caste system?
A

Brahmims, Kshatriyas, vaishyas, shudras

31
Q
  1. How does the caste system impact peoples lives?
A

Rural communities have been arranged based on castes. Upper and lower castes live in segregated colonies - water wells aren’t shared - Upper castes can’t accept food from lower castes - only marry within castes.

32
Q

Criticism of Marxist theories

A
  • Ignores positive functions of religion - psychological adjustment to misfortune, sense of belonging, charity etc.
  • Removes spiritual aspects of religion by suggesting it’s merely an ideology.
  • Althusser rejects alienation as unscientific - based on a romantic notion of ‘ true self’.
  • Fails to consider secularisation and modern context - religion can’t control the modern population: people = aware of their agency.
  • Religious movements have brought change and helped remove ruling elites.
33
Q

Althusser

A

Saw social institutions as producing ruling class ideology and maintaining a capitalist hegemony - ideological state apparatus - reinforce the idea that positions in society are Un changeable + inevitable

34
Q

Gramsci

A

Religion contributed to hegemonic control of the ruling class - religion could sometimes be a focus for a counter-hegemony providing a basis to challenge the ruling class

35
Q

Examples of religion as a basis for counter-hegemony

A
  • Jesus - link between religion and politics.
  • Abraham - polythesis to monotheism
36
Q

Bloch

A

‘Dual nature’ of religion - inhibits change and also inspires protest and rebellion.

37
Q

The principle of Hope

A
  • Religion offers people the idea of a better society - Bloch thought religious faith was misplaced - saw it as a hope for a better sort of society and a belief that people should be able to have dignity and live a good life in a good society.
  • the hope for a better world is inherent in religious belief can influence the desire for better things on earth
  • Helps rally people to organise to bring about revolutionary social change
38
Q

What did Madura believe religious institutions have?

A

A degree of freedom within society - religious institutions dont always work for the benefit of powerful elites they can also act independently with relative autonomy.

39
Q

What might religion be sometimes? - Maduro

A

The only institution which people can channel their frustration and safely organise for radical social change.

40
Q

How can religious leaders act?

A

Charismatic leaders that inspire congregations to seek and achieve social change - untouchable to their followers due to their status - harm against them may cause a catalyst reaction.

41
Q

What two examples did Maduro give for religion and freedom?

A
  1. The liberation theology
  2. The civil rights movement
42
Q

Liberation theology

A
  • Many communities across South America were being oppressed by the ruling class living in poverty with low levels of education and a lack of economic prospects.
  • Many Christians e.g. Oscar Romero used their faith to promote biblical messages of equality, liberation and compassion.
  • Liberation theology = general hope that democracy would replace dictatorship.
  • corrupt governments killed people who questioned their capitalist ideology.
43
Q

Criticisms of Neo-Marxist theories

A
  • Pope John Paul II highly critical of the link between liberation theology and Marxism as minimising spiritual elements of faith. He told priests to focus on their religious responsibilities not political challenges.
  • Some question how central religion was to the Civil Rights Movement. Although King was a clergyman the movement was multi-faith and broadly secular.
  • Religion is losing its social significance in modern day society as evidenced by the rise of secularism - Linda Woodhead - so Neo Marxist theories aren’t relevant.
44
Q

Feminist perspective of religion

A

Religious beliefs act as patriarchal ideology which legitimises female marginalisation and subordination

45
Q

Liberal feminists perspective on religion

A

Likely to aim for equality within existing religions - removing obstacles to leadership.

46
Q

Radical feminists perspective on religion

A

Likely to present a fundamental challenge to religion altogether or to seek to recapture centrality of women in early times.

47
Q

Marxist feminist perspective on religion

A

Emphasise the view that religion acts as ‘the opium of the people’ - religion is a way of compensating women for their double exploitation of society and relationships.

48
Q

Evidence of patriarchal views in religion:
Religious scripture

A
  • Eve demonised as a temptress - made a suitable helper to men.
  • Most religions are centred around men.
  • Stereotyped as care giver/ gentle/ obedient or dangerous/ sexual beings.
  • Only 8% of women in the Bible are named others are referred to in relation to men e.g. wife/ daughter.
  • Koran - women have less legal rights - women legally inferior to men e.g. cant get a divorce without the husbands approval.
  • Female submission required.
  • ‘man is master by divine right’ - Ephesians 5 woman should be ‘submisisve’.
49
Q

Evidence of patriarchal views in religion:
Religious organisations

A
  • Authority is male dominated - no female leaders in Catholicism, Orthodox Christianity, Islam and Orthodox Judaism due to tradition.
  • Female Buddhist monks must follow footsteps of male monks.
  • Minority of women leaders in Sikhism - cultural reasons.
  • C of E face opposition to female ministers since 1992 - over 2,500 priests left in protest.
  • Parishes refuse female ministers and have ‘floating bishop’ instead.
50
Q

Evidence of patriarchal views in religion:
Places of worship

A
  • Many places of worship segregate sexes - marginalising women e.g. Orthodox Judaism - women seated behind screens or up in galleries whilst men occupy the central and more sacred spaces which suggests men’s contribution to worship is more meaningful than that of women.
  • Most mosques have separate washing areas for men and women - Feminists claim the argument of not distracting men objectifies women making them into nothing more than objects of desire.
51
Q

Evidence of patriarchal views in religion:
Laws, rituals and customs

A
  • Women lose power/ rights in religious laws - women cant file for divorce in Islam and Orthodox Jews - cant inherit from parents.
  • Women encouraged to take on traditional roles in family in most world religions - taking care of household whilst men provide - limits independence.
  • Mormon fundamentalism - multiple wives but not multiple husbands - Biblical tradition of polygamy brings blessings.
  • Female genital mutilation in some religions (not said in scripture but perhaps cultural).
  • Ban on contraception and abortion limiting female rights - men controlling women’s bodies.
52
Q

Simone De Beauvoir - Second class Believers

A
  • Suggests women are tricked into thinking men and women are equal in the eyes of God.
  • Women called for motherhood and so will be compensated for their suffering in the afterlife.
  • Suggests religions socialise young girls into worshipping a male god and therefore are encouraged to unconsciously see men as superior.
53
Q

Feminists - Jean Holm’s development

A
  • Supports De Beauvoir suggesting environment people worship in has an impact on how women are seen.
  • Women are often the periphery of the place of worship whereas men hold more sacred places.
  • This reinforces patriarchal views of he role of women marginalising them to private sphere of religion e.g. women cant be ordained in the Catholic Church.
54
Q

Feminists - Daly argues religion maintains patriarchy in several ways:

A
    • Male domination over omen in rituals and religious authority.
  • Scripture composed by men.
  • Male language about god eg, power
  • Negative portrayal of women in scripture limiting opportunity for female empowerment.
  • Concludes that God must be seen as a non-gendered verb, a transformative power rather than a person/ sex. Women must leave the Church and find a sisterhood.
55
Q

Feminist - Armstrong

A
  • Women haven’t always been subordinate - early history women were considered central to the spiritual quest.
  • Mother Goddess evidence across the globe with a focus on symbols of life, fertility and the force of nature.
  • Female figures began to be written out of religion with the acceptance of monotheism.
  • Suggests this process originated Yaweh with male Gods introducing more aggressive spirituality and giving religion a patriarchal core.
56
Q

Feminists - Armstrong - stained glass ceiling

A
  • clear separation between men with extra hurdles for women to overcome.
  • Exemplified in the exclusion of women from Priesthood when the C of E ordained women and there was fierce opposition.
  • Also seen in Traditional Muslim and Jewish wedding vows in which the women agree to be obedient where men promise to be honest.
57
Q

Feminist - Nawal El Saadawi

A

Argues religion itself isn’t oppressive to women but they become so when the develop within already existing patriarchal social structures.

58
Q

Feminists - El Saadawi’s ideas:

A
  • Oppression of women in religion stems from patriarchal society.
  • Overtime religious doctrine shaped by men reflecting their interests with women’s voices being overheard.
  • Religion became a tool to justify male privilege already existing in society and control of women.
  • In ‘the hidden face of eve’ she details how modern doctrine portrays eve as a temptress who created sin. However it is clear in Genesis that Eve was gifted with knowledge, intelligence and superior mental capacities.
  • Religion became a political ideology.
  • Female circumcision prevalent in many religious communities. It was in the patriarchal societies interests to have women feel powerless and lack control over her own body so use religion to justify this.
59
Q

What does Linda Woodhead accept?

A

That traditional religions are patriarchal but not all religions are and many religions are changing.

60
Q

What does Woodhead argue?

A

There are more religious forms of feminism e.g. the hijab.

61
Q

How does Woodhead use the hijab and burqa as an example of feminism in religious forms?

A

Where Western societies see the hijab and burqa as oppressive women can find it liberating as they are free to enter public without losing their cultural identity or being sexually obbjectified.

62
Q

Examples of religious forms of fmeinism:

A
  • Women can gain status and respect in the private space of home and family as well e.g. Pentecostal belief is that men owe respect to women which can be used as a form of power to influence men’s behaviour forcing them to practice what they preach.
  • Women’s positions within some religions are changing - many Protestant denominations now ordain women - nearly 50% of all C of E ministers are female.
  • More women attend religious services than men which suggests women have a greater role in religion.

Beliefs In Society (1 decks)

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