Book chapter 2

Question 1

What is critical rationalism?

Answer 1

Knowledge that is certain can only be attained through critical reflection about the possibilities and limits of thinking itself.

Question 2

Analytical knowledge

Answer 2

Knowledge is gained through analyzing concepts and axioms and seeing what is meant by those presuppositions.

Question 3

What is Synthetic a priori knowledge

Answer 3

Knowledge that transcends what is implied by analysis of concepts and definitions, and which is based on pure thinking without observation.

Question 4

What is the rationalist view of causality?

Answer 4

Behind every phenomena there is a sequence of cause and effect through events that is hidden and can’t be known if it wasn’t observed as such.

Question 5

What are synthetic claims a posteriori?

Answer 5

Claims based on empirical observations that tell us more than we know based on our normal definition (synthetic) and are based upon a certain discovery (a posteriori)

The Vienna Circle believed in this

Question 6

What is logical positivsm?

Answer 6

Only knowledge that is possible to be traced back to observational data can be quantified as scientific.

Question 7

What is deduction?

Answer 7

Form of reasoning in which particular conclusions are based on general claims or laws.

Question 8

What is a syllogism?

Answer 8

Start with a general principle (major premise)

On which a small premise is based

Which end in a conclusion.

Question 9

Inductions

Answer 9

Basing general claims or laws on particular observations, and those general claims are also applicable to phenomena that have not been observed.

Question 10

What is the induction problem?

Answer 10

We can’t infer a general law from a limited set of observations and we also can’t talk about the probability of this general claim being true, because we need information of the entire set of phenomena and those have not yet been observed.

Question 11

Name the two models of truth

Answer 11

1. Correspondence model of truth
2. Coherence model of truth

Question 12

What is the correspondence model of truth?

Answer 12

The correspondence model assumes that a claim is true if it corresponds with reality.

Question 13

Name two problems of the correspondence model.

Answer 13

1. It’s hard to determine whether a claim and reality are in fact corresponding
2. There’s no connection between phenomena we want to examine and the things we can observe.

Question 14

How can correspondence model of truth be applied to theoretical concepts?

Answer 14

To examine theoretical concepts using a correspondence model of truth, we need to show a reasonable connection between theoretical phenomona and our observations.

Question 15

What is the coherence model of truth?

Answer 15

The coherence model of truth assumes there are many reason-giving considerations that support the truth of a claim, factors that are connected and support each other.
The truth is defended by arguments on how concepts can be understood and operationalized.

Question 16

Name the three criteria to make theoretical concepts good for grasping nong-observable data

Answer 16

1. Robustness
2. Fit
3. Predictability

Question 17

What does it mean that theoretical concepts need to be robust?

Answer 17

This means that a theoretical concept needs to be applicable to multiple concepts, and therefor cover a set of similar phenomena.

Question 18

What does it mean that theoretical concepts need to fit?

Answer 18

This means that claims that use there general theoretical concepts shold fit into more general claims.

Question 19

What does it mean that theoretical concepts need to be predictable?

Answer 19

This means that it is possible to make trustworthy predictions about the occurrence of phenomena using particular concepts.

Question 20

Describe the difference between observational concepts and theoretical concepts

Answer 20

Observational concepts are things that can be observed like a green apple

Theoretical concepts are things that cannot be observed, like the market or profit.

Question 21

What are analytical claims?

Answer 21

Claims that are true when they can be derived from various other claims on various levels of abstraction

Question 22

What are synthetic claims?

Answer 22

These are claims that are checked by observing reality. These require the support of theoretical claims not directly related to these observations.

Question 23

What is the standard model of sciences?

Answer 23

This is a standard model focusing on how knowledge is gained and proposes an empirical cycle that combines induction and deduction to gain knowledge. It’s based on the coherence model of truth.

Question 24

Describe basic elements of the standard model of the sciences

Answer 24

1. Detect empirical regularities through generalization, based on observation
2. Explain regularities by relating them to other regularities
3. Form new hypotheses based on theoretical insights
4. Test new hypotheses through experimentation
5. Deduce certain expectations about workings one observes
6. Conclusions about validity of hypotheses.

Question 25

What did Karl Popper believe?

Answer 25

Popper believed in critical rationalism.

Question 26

What were Karl Popper’s presuppositions?

Answer 26

1. The induction problem is obsolute
2. Scientists should aim to falsify new theories and that theories withstanding these attempts are trustworthy
3. Only criterion of scientific knowledge is falsifiability.

Question 27

What was the problem of Popper’s thought?

Answer 27

Wh should observation be able to falsify a claim if it can never lead to a confirmation of it? Claims depend on assumptions and other considerations made by the scientists conducting research.

Question 28

Name the two phases of Kuhn’s paradigm theory?

Answer 28

1. Lost of discussions about methodological, ontological and epistomological presuppositions on a fundamental level. Start of different thought schools
2. Breakthrough discovery is made within one of schools. This discovery shows the new way of studying reality and reaching new scientific success.
   3 Scientists start to develop new ways to look at a problem, outside of their school of thought, which may lead to a scientific revolution.

Question 29

What does Kuhn’s paradigm evolve to include?

Answer 29

1. Fundamental theories that all scientists agree to
2. More breakthroughs that will function as examples of new theories
3. Shared scientific values
4. Shared methodological prescriptions.

Question 29

When are we in a normal science?

Answer 29

We are in normal science if this system, or paradigm, functions well. More problems will be solved, resulting in a stable growth of scientific knowledge. This normal science contains clear norms regarding the validity of research that are widely accepted.

Question 29

Why does Popper think it is important to look for evidence to falsify claims?

Answer 29

Confirmation-seeking might lead to tunnel-vision: one sees what fits his theory while ignoring contradicting evidence.