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Book 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Definition of pain?

A

Pain is an unpleasant emotional and sensory experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage

Pain cant always be linked to actual tissue damage

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2
Q

Describe the basic flow of pain in the pain pathway?

A
  • pain stimulus
  • transduction (nociception) conversion of pain stimuli to nerve impulses by pain receptors
  • transmission of pain impulses to spinal cord by sensory neurones
  • spinal cord processing
  • transmission of pain information via ascending tracts in spinal cord to the brain
  • processing of pain information in the brain
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3
Q

What are pain receptors called?

What are the two types of pain receptors??

A

Nociceptors, free nerve endings sensory neurones
Found in somatic and visceral structures

High threshold mechanoreceptor - responds to intense mechanical stimulation
Polymodal nociceptor - responds to unpleasant mechanical, chemical and thermal stimuli

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4
Q

What two types of pain stimuli are there?

A

Physical- thermal /mechanical stimuli

Chemical - released due to a damaged tissue can also cause pain

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5
Q

What are the 4 basic processes in nociception?

A

Transduction, transmission, perception, modulation

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6
Q

What happens in the transduction of pain in nociception?

A

When painful stimuli, mast cells release histamine.
Histamines stimulates neurochemicals to be released from nociceptor ending. Eg substance P.
These neurochemicals further stimulate mast cells and nociceptors.
This stimulation leads to ion channels, sodium ions in fluxing in and a nerve impulse action potential being created along nerve fibres to spinal cord

Ischaemia or hypoxia will cause pain as accumulation of pain stimulating chemicals, certain chemicals may lower pain threshold so becomes sensitised

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7
Q

What are the two types of sensory fibres involved with pain?

A

A delta fibres - a fast conducting, myelinated fibre from high threshold mechanoreceptor, that is the first pain that is sharp and felt in a defined area. Larger diameter of 2 to 5ym.

C fibres are slow conducting, unmyelinated fibres that signal a later, more chronic that is a more dull, long lasting aching pain. From polymodal nociceptors. Smaller diameter of 0.2-1.5ym

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8
Q

What are the structures of the urinary system???

A

Kidneys- remove urea from the blood and expel it in urine, waste product of protein metabolism. Help to maintain a balance of fluids, salts and other substances. Produces erthropoietim.
Ureter - narrow tubes that take urine from kidney to bladder. Smooth muscle contracts and relaxa to force urine down.
Bladder -muscular walls contract and relax and stretch to store urine. And contract to flattern and empty of urine
Urethra - tube allows urine to exit body

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9
Q

What are the 3 areas of the kidney??

A

Outer cortex, inner medulla and renal pelvis (where urine is collected and drains in to the ureter.

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10
Q

What is a nephron?

A

Microscopic functional units of the kidney that is responsible for purification and filtration of blood.

Consists of two parts, renal corpuscle which filters blood, and renal tubule where reabsorption and secretion occurs

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11
Q

What two parts is the renal corpuscle made from??

A

Bowmans corpuscle and glomerulus

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12
Q

What happens when blood is filtrated in the kidneys??

A

At renal corpuscle with bowmans corpuscle and glomerulus.
Bowmans corpuscle encloses glomerulus with capillaries, afferent aterieole brings blood at high pressure which pushes it out of the capillaries of the glomerulus. This makes a filtrate (glomerular filtrate) which contains water, electrolytes, urea, amino acids and glucose. This is then sent along the renal tubule

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13
Q

Describe the process as glomerular filtrate goes through the renal tubule in nephrons in kidney??

A

Begins are proximal convoluted tubule. (PCT) where reabsorption begins as glucose, amino acids and electrolytes are reabsorbed, attracting 80% of water. By active transport

Loop of henle next U shape. Sodium and water is reabsorbed which concentrates the filtrate

Distal convoluted tubule next where electrolytes like h plus, toxins and nitrogenous wasteare actively transported from plasma filtrate into urine which then flows to collecting ducts.

Final water reabsorption is in collecting ducts which have water pores in epithelial, work under influence of ADH.

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14
Q

Explain ADH within kidney

A

Anti- duiretic hormone
Produced in hypothalamus, stored in pituitary gland, released into bloodstream
osmoreceptors in hypothalamus detect changes in concentration of solutes in blood.
Angiotensin effects release of ADH too.
ADH has two functions - water retention by re absorption in distal tubule and collecting ducts by changing their permeability.
Vasoconstriction so increasing peripheral resistance increasing blood pressure (hormonal regulation) as ADH increases volume of water in blood, increasing blood pressure

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15
Q

What is the main function of renal corpuscle, pct, loop of henle, dct and collecting ducts??

A

Renal corpuscle - filtration
Pct - reabsorption
Loop of henle - adjust ts water conc of water
Dct - secretion in to urine
Collecting ducts - AHD water re absorption

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16
Q

What does DNA stand for? And its structure?

What are AG and TC??

A

Deoxyribonucleic acid.
Double helix as double stranded, with nucleotides consisting of a bases (GC, AT) sugar deoxyribose, and phosphate group.

AG purines
CT pyrimidines

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17
Q

What is RNA and its structure?

A 
Ribonucleic acid
2 types- messenger and transfer
Sugar is ribose
AU, GC
Uracil!!!
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18
Q

What is chromatin??
What is genome?
What is gene??

A

Chromatin is DNA tightly wrapped around histones.
Genome is all the genes in a cell
Gene is an area on a chromosome that codes for a particular protein

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19
Q

What are the 3 stages of protein synthesis??

A

Transcription - where DNA sequence copied into similar single stranded molecule MRNA . Enzyme breaks hydrogen bonds on DNA and free nucleotides align with DNA bases to form a complementary strand.
Slicing - introns out that don’t code for proteins
Translation- amino acid chains are made on ribosomes with assistance of TRNa. mRNA attaches to ribosome in cytoplasm or RER. Ribosome moves along MRNA and TRNA brings amino acid. 3 bases for 1 amino acid - triplet code is a codon.

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20
Q

What is pharmo cogenetics??

A

Look at DNA and see what meds someone will best respond to, as everyones diff dna

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21
Q

What are the two types of fluids in the body that are separated by a cell membrane?

A

Extracellular fluid -
Blood plasma and interstitial fluid also other fluids like gasto-intestinal secretions, CSF 40% of fluid in body

Intracellular fluid - cytosol 60% of fluids is found within the cell membrane

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22
Q

What does insensible loss of water mean?

A

Loss of water, normally by diffusion through the skin and evaporation from the respiratory tract

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23
Q

Why is water important in the body??

A

Transport, temperature regulation, blood pressure, lubricant, chemical reagent, universal solvent

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24
Q

What factors determine blood volume (water)

A

Amount of water and sodium ingested and excreted by kidney

Water lost through gi tract, skin and lungs

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25
What two receptors detect changes in blood volume/ blood pressure ?? What is the controller and effector?
Osmoreceptors as part of ADH in hypothamalus Baro receptors in heart in aortic arch and carotid arteries signify vasomotor centre and cardiac centre Controller - ADH Effector - distal convoluted tube and collecting ducts
26
What does RAAS stand for?
Renin- angiotensin - aldosterone- system hormonal system
27
What are the main aims of RAAS
Renin angiotensin aldosterone system regulates blood pressure by the blood volume by regulating the fluid balance in the body, sustain balance of sodium and water
28
How does RAAS work?
When blood volume is low, specialised cells called juxtaglomerular cells in the kidneys secrete renin. Renin causes angiotensinogen produced in liver to convert to angiotensin 1 Angiotensin 1 travels in circulation to lungs where it is converted to angiotensin 2 by enzyme ACE angiotensin converting enzyme Angiotensin 2 causes vasoconstriction increasing peripheral resistance Angiotensin 2 also stimulates adrenal glands to stimulate kidney to produce aldosterone which decreases urine output by faciliatating pottasium exchange for sodium in DVC. Which allows sodium reabsorption increasing BP. Angiotensin 2 stimulates ADH secretion too. Stimulates thirst sensation too.
29
Pharmocology for fluid balance... How to treat hypertension?
Duiretics. Which cause excess water and sodium ions to be excreted from kidneys to lower blood pressure. Commonly used directics ACE inhibitors (angiotensin converting enzyme) causes vasodilation by inhibiting the formation of angiotensin 2 at the lungs. Loop diuretics- inhibit re absopbtion of sodium ions in the loop of henle, so sodium is passed on to collecting ducts where it attracts lots of water to be excreted. Can be toxic tho Thiazides - inhibit sodium reabsorption at the start of DVC most commonly used.
30
Which to hormones /processes are responsible for the hormonal control of BP
ADH | rAAS
31
What are the two funciojs of the urinary bladder?)
Storage and eliminating urine
32
What is micturition? In bladder
Release of urine from the urinary bladder into the urethra so that it can be eliminated via the urethral meatus.
33
How does urine move from the kidney down to the bladder via the ureters?
By waves of peristalsis into the bladder. Smooth muscle in their middle coat allows peristaltic waves. Ureters enter the bladder at an acute angle to prevent reflux and infection
34
What is the bladder wall like?
Has smooth muscle called the detrusor muscle Folds in the lining due to stretchy transitional epithelium, and mucous membranes that allows for stretching as the bladder fills.
35
What two structures do you have in the kidney to allow urination and preventing urinary leakage??
Bare sensory ending neurones of parasympathetic nervous system Numerous nerve endings between urinary orifices and bladder neck known as trigone Bladder closure mechanism at the base supports the urethra allowing automatic closure and conscious override when we need to micturate. Internal urethral sphincter which is under automatic control smooth circular muscle External urethral sphincter which is voluntary control striated skeletal muscle We also have muscles of pelvic floor to help support urethra and bladder when sudden intra-abdominal pressure from laughing, sneezing
36
What are the 4 micturition centres involved in the storage and voiding of urine?
Spinal micturition centre (SMC) in spinal cord between s2 and s4. Relay centre that organises incoming sensory info from bladder and outgoijg motor neurones to PMC. That inhibits micturition reflex, or cerebral cotext to give sense lf fullness. Pontine micturition centre (PMC) in brain stem as a neural switch between storage and voiding in bladder. Inhibits descending signals to SMC during filling and releases to SMC to allow emptying. Cerebral cortex allows voluntary inhibition of the micturition reflex Hypothalamus - integrates micturition centres but is hormonal control not neural
37
What is the process of normal voiding?
As bladder fills, sensory nerve endings in bladder (stretch receptors) Afferent signals to sacral segments in SMC via pelvic nerves Intergration of signals in spinal cord Efferent signals from spinal cord to bladder (parasympathetic allows voiding) Dfferent impulses cause detrusor muscle in bladder to contract and inner and external urinary sphincter to relax.
38
Voluntary delay of normal voiding process??
Bladder fills 200-300ml person aware they need to void by sensory nerve endings Afferent signals to sacral segments in spinal cord via pelvic nerves Integration of signals in spinal cord Efferent signals from spinal cord to pons (pontine ) Pontine MC sends descending signals via spinal cord to reduct intensity of bladder contractions and stimulate efferent neurones that keep external urinary sphincter contracted When convenient to urinate higher brain centres send impulses via pons to spinal cord toinhibit urinary sphincter This desire initiates mixturition relfexes, as streched bladder stimulates ascending fibres in spinal cord signalling higher centres Pons swtiches off signals that decrease bladder contractions allowing efferent signals to create bladder contraction and sphincters to relax
39
What 3 things is urinary continence dependant on?
Relaxation of the bladder as it fills Higher pressure in urethra than in bladder Inhibition of bladder contractions during filling
40
What is the pelvic floor and its 2 functions?
Muscles - superficial a d deep muscle layers, ligaments and fibrous connective tissue. Punctured around the urethra, vagina and rectum It provides support for the contents of abdominal cavity Contributes to maintaining continence by supporting closure of the urthra and anus
41
What two hormones are though to have a role in lower utinary tract?
Oestrogen and progesterone Respnsible for urinary symptoms during menstruation and pregnancy - incontinence Receptors found in brain, bladder, urethra and pelvic floor
42
What is gasto-colic reflex ?? What is rectal distension?
Gasto-coloc reflex is when slow peristaltic waves are replaces by mass peristaltic waves and the faeces propels into the rectum giving a sense of fullness Rectal distension - relaxation of interal anal sphincter which allows contents to move to upper part of the anus
43
What are the two processes im cell division?
Mitosis - production of genetically identical cells for growth and repair. 46 chromosomes Meosis- genetic variable gametes 23
44
What is interphase and its steps?
Interphase is the phase which happens between cell divisions. G1 - cell grows and organelles duplicated S phase - chromosomes replicated by dna replication, dna polymerase keeps two strands separate and links news nucleotides G2- cell grows and produces further organelles
45
What are the 4 stages of mitosis?
Prophase - chromatin condenses into chromosomes (two sister chromatids joined by a centromere attached to centriole spindles from poles of cell) . Nuclear envelops disappear Metaphase - align pulled by spindles Anaphase - centromeres break apart and chromatids pulled opposite sides Telophase - new nuclear membranes around each of the two chromosome sets
46
What is the third step of mitotis
Cytokinesis - cytoplasm divides and two seperate cells form
47
What are the two processes that crest genetic variation?
Independent assortment - homologous chromosomes align at equator either side, so what chromosome is pulled im each direction alters, anaphase1 Crossing over during prophase 1- fragments of chromosomes containing genes are exchanged between chromatids
48
What is non disjunction??
When the chromosomes don't seperate correctly, resulting in daughter cells having altered number of chromosomes
49
What are the diff types of microorganism?
Bacteria, fungus, viruses, protozoa (single celled organism)
50
Characteristics of fungi?
Non motile Cell wall of chitin Two groups : moulds which are multicellular arranged in branching filaments called hyphae. Yeasts : unicellular microorganisms Create spores to reproduce Not all pathogenic but some are opportunistic infections when immunosuppressdd
51
What are the diff shapes of bacteria?
``` Bacilli- rod shapes Cocci- spheres Spirochetes - spiral Diplo - two joined together Strepto - chains of bacteria Staphlo - grapelike cluster ```
52
What happens when you do gram strain technique?
Gram positive - blue purple retaij strain as high level of peptidoglycan in cell wall Gram negative - pink red small amounts of peptidoglycan so dont retain strain
53
What do bacteria produce, and its cell structure?
Spores which can survive extreme environmental conditions , only germinate when favourable again Has pilli for attaching to surfaces, capsule to prevent drying out, cell wall of peptidoglycan, flagellum, no membrane bound organelles, single circular moleculr of DNA, plasmid.
54
What are prions??
Infectious proteins, no nucleic acid but hardy and remain on contaminated equipment after sterilisation
55
What is the chain of infection??
Infectious agent eg virus bacteria Reservoirs - where has it come from, human, food, equipment Portal of exit - urine, wound, blood, vomit Mode of transmission- air sexual indirect and direct contact Portal of entry - ingestion,inhaling Susceptible host - immunosuppressed host, lack of antibodies
56
What are the three levels of diesease in a population?)
Endemic - present in a pop over a long time Epidemic - sudden increase Pandemic - worldwide epidemic
57
What is the disease progression??
Microrganism enters the body Period of incubation - time between entry and symptoms Prodromal period - generalised Infection symptoms Period of acme - classic symptoms are demonstrated Period of decline - symptoms lessen Convalescence - body normal again
58
What does virulence mean?
An agents ability to make you have a disease
59
What does mrsa stand for??
Meticillin resistant staphylococcus aureus
60
What are the two types of chromosomes
1 to 22 - autosomal | 23- sex chromosomes where XX is female and XY male
61
What are the 4 types of genetic variation??
Those that cause no diff Those that directly causes a disease - ms Those that affect susceptibility to diseases - sz, diabetes Those that cause individual differences in healthy people
62
What are alleles?
Alternative forms of a gene at the same position on a chromosome
63
What is a single gene disorder, and what are the 3 main common types?
A change in one or both copies of a particular pair of genes Autosomal recessive - 25% affected cystic fibrosis Autosomal dominant - 50% affected eg huntington disease X linked recessive - 25% effected haemophilia
64
What is multifactorial inheritance?
When many factors, of polygenes (altered and unaltered genes working together)nand environmental factors effect birth defects Eg cleft lip and palate
65
What chromosomal abnormalities is there for Down syndrome and klinefelter syndrome
Down synstome theres trisomy 21, extra chromosome. | Klinefelter theres additional X chromosome
66
What is shock and what causes it?
Compex physiological syndrome and a life threatening condition. Is it an inability of the circulatory system to supply adequate oxygen and nutrients to the tissues or removing waste products, cant carry out one of its essential functions Haemorrhage, myocardial infaction
67
What are the 4 types of shock??
Hypovolaemic - loss lf IV volume, by haemorrhage or loss of other bodily fluids rg plasma, Cardiogenic - pump failure myocardial infarction Vascular - loss of vascular tone. Septic shock Neurogenic - loss of vascular tone due to loss of neurological control. Head injury, severe emotional experience stimulates vagal slowing of tje heart
68
What may shock result in?
Reduce the perfusion of tissue, so blood pressure needs to be maintained to maintain homeostasis
69
3 ways the body responds to shock -
Peripheral resitance by vasomotor Increasing heart rate by cardiac centre Hormomal control of bp - RAAS and ADH
70
What are the signs of shock?
Breathing rate increased Less urine output - ADH and RAAS Thirst- RAAS Pallor - vasoconstriction and blood flow diverted to organs Fell cold and clammy - vasoconstriction and poor tissue perfusion Rapid pulse Decreased BP as reduced cardiac output and blood volume
71
What is an antigen?
A substance that stimulates an immune response and is usually foreign to the host
72
What is immunotolerance?
The recognition of self materials by the body.
73
What are the two main types of lymphocytes and where do they mature / storage
B - mature in bone marrow and found in corculation and spleen T - mature in thymus and stored in spleen, lymph nodes
74
What do B lymphocytes do??
Humoral immunity, Needs to be activated by helper T cells who secrete chemicals , then this activates B lymphocytes to make plasma cells which produce specific antibodies
75
What are T cells and the 4 types??
Cell mediated Helper T cells- secrete chemicals lymphokines which stimulate killer T cells, macrophages amd natural killer cells. Vulnerable to HIV Cytotoxic T cells - directly kill foreign or infected cells by inserting a pore in their membrane causing lysis. Release chemicals called lymphokines and promote phagocytosis. Need a helper T cell Memory T cells - remain in circulation Suppressor T cells - prevent T cells getting out of control by moderating immune response
76
What are antibodies (type of protein), their structure and the 5 types
Immunoglobulin. 4 polypeptide chains with a stem which detemines the class , and 2 arms which determines the specific antigens MADGE igm iga igm igg igd ige IgG most common in second response and can act as a opsonin
77
What cell does HIv effect in specific immune system?
Helper T cells, virus replicates within helper t cell and replicates until the cell is destroyed. So number of T cells gradually decline and persom will develop opportunistic infections.
78
What are the 4 theories for ageing?
Evolutionary, cellular, molecular, system
79
What is the evolutionary theory of ageing??
Disposable soma theory Tension between investing in short term maintenance of the somatic tissue, and reproductive tissue. Those who are low risk long lived, reproduce more slowly with effective maintenance systems But high risk, short lived organisms invest little in maintenance and more in reproduction
80
What is the cellular theory of ageing? 1st theory
Free radicals and oxidants are highly reactive agents and can cause damage to cell components like ensymes, DNA and structural proteins, which can become non functional showing ageing. If there is an imbalances between free radicals and antioxidants (protect the cell membrane from damage by mopping it up) then oxidative stress occurs
81
What are the 4 theories for ageing?
Evolutionary, cellular, molecular, system
82
What is the evolutionary theory of ageing??
Disposable soma theory Tension between investing in short term maintenance of the somatic tissue, and reproductive tissue. Those who are low risk long lived, reproduce more slowly with effective maintenance systems But high risk, short lived organisms invest little in maintenance and more in reproduction
83
What is the cellular theory of ageing? 1st theory
Free radicals and oxidants are highly reactive agents and can cause damage to cell components like ensymes, DNA and structural proteins, which can become non functional showing ageing. If there is an imbalances between free radicals and antioxidants (protect the cell membrane from damage by mopping it up) then oxidative stress occurs
84
What is the second theory for cellular theories of ageing?
As you age telomeres on chromosomes get gradually shorter until a critical length, leading to apoptic cell death. The length of teleomere determines age and how many times the cell will replicate, once it stops replicating will go in to cell senescence. Which is ageing
85
What is the molecular theory of ageing??
In animal models been shown to be possible to creat a mutation in the insulin pathway that increases the healthy life span. In humans variant gene of FOX03 involved in insulin pathway. More prevalent in ladies over 93 than younger, but linked to less risk of diabetes and cancer,these genes may he important for future therapies to support ageing Calorie restriction diet have less triglyceride, lover insulin levels and less free radical damage
86
What is the system theory of ageing??
Progressive functional decline and reduced ability to respond to environmental stresses leas to i creased susceptibility and vulnerability to disease As you age your organ reserve which is its ability to return to homeostasis declines, with less functional reserve due to degeneration of organ systems
87
What is the respiratory and nervois ystem effects of reduced functional reserve as you age (system theory)
Respiratory - decreased blood flow to pulmonary reduced diffusion Decreased pulmonary elasticity Decreased maximum breathing capacity due to shorter shallower breaths Airway resistance increased ``` Nervous system - Gradual loss of neurones and glial cells Minimal loss in brain stem Reduced neurotransmitter production Myelin destruction Loss of neurones in cerebral cortex ```
88
What is growth?
Positive change in size over a period of time, as a stage of maturation or process towards fullness Increase of size of cells, or amount of cells due to oestrogen and testosterone Measured by weight, length, head circumference and sometimes skin fold thickness
89
What is development?
The process to maturity Prenatal - way human embryos gestates in pregnancy Child and then youth development - emotional, social, biological and psychological development
90
What is the sequence of life stages
``` Sperm/ egg Fertilisation Zygote Blastocyst Embroyo Fetus Child Adolescent Adult ```
91
What are the 3 germ layers at 12 days
Ectoderm - internal layer lung cell, thyroid cell, pancreatic cell Mesoderm-middle . Cardiac muscle, skeletal muscle. Red blood crlls, smooth muscle Ectoderm- external layer, neuron of brain, skill epithelial cell, pigment cell
92
What are the complex stages of human development called?
Carnegie stages of development
93
What is the process in which organs and tissues of the body develop from the 3 germ layers
Organogenesis
94
What are the two growth trends?
Cephalocaudal - head to toe direction of growth | Proximodistal - inward to outward pattern .. Eg arms before hands
95
What factors effect growth and development?
``` Prematal and growth favtors Sleep Environmental stressors Nutrition Genetics Endocrine system Racial differences ```
96
What are the hormones involved with growth?
Thyroid gland - thyroxine - normal brain development and overall rate of growth Ovaries - estradoil - development of breasts and menstrual cycle , not so much the secondary sex characteristics of females Testes - testosterone - make genitals prenatally and triggers the sequence of changes for primary and secondary changes at puberty for males Adrenal gland - adrenal androgen - involved in some changes in puberty, scomdary sex characteristics of females Pituiaty gland - growth hormone and activating hormone - rate of physical maturation, signals other glands to activate their horomes
97
What is synaptic pruning?
Weeding out unnecessary synapses and strengthening the important ones based on child's experiences
98
What are the stages of embroyonic development??
Festilisation day1 zygote formed Cleavage 1-2 week mitocic cell division of fertilised egg to form blastocyte Gastrulation - week 3-cell movement where 3 layers develop Neurulation - week 3-4 notochord develops followed by neural plate from ectoderm- neural plate falls im on itself to form neural tube which will make the CNS Organogenesis - organs develop from germ layers w
99
Where do a delta and c fibres deliver afferent messages to?
Dorsal horn in spinal cord
100
What are the main functions of the immune system?
To protect the body against infection from microbes Destory or neutralise non living foreign matter Immune surveillance - destroy any abnormal cells which appear in the body Remove any old and damaged cells from the body
101
What are the features of a good defence system?
Provision of physical barriers that limit invasion of the body by pathogens Able to distinguish between self and non self Ability to detect infected cells Ability to recognise an infinite number of pathogens
102
What is the fancy names for red b cells, platelets and white b c , what is the process of makimg these called and where are they made
R b c - erthyrocytes Platelets - thrombocytes W b c - leukocytes Haemopoesis in flat bones in adults in Bone marrow red
103
What are the 3 main cells in non specific response
Natural killer cells, macrophages and neutrophils
104
What are the 3 limes of defence in immune system?
1st are barriers like skin, mucous membranes 2nd is phagocytosis, inflammatory response, complement and interferon proteins 2rd is humoral and cell mediated immunity
105
What is phagocytosis?
Process by where pahgocytos, neutrophils, and sometimes mast cells and eosinophils, recognise, englulf, and digest foreign cells and particles Attaches, engulfs, phagosome, lysosome, phagolysosom, digrested products expelled
106
What substances enhance phagocytosis?
Opsonins | They coat the foreign particle, making it easy for phagocytes to recognise and englulf them, antibodies act as opsonins
107
What are epitopes?
The products of digested bacteria frok phagocytosis that displays on their cell membrane,which presents to helper T cells
108
What are the 4 protective proteins in non specific immune system?
Complement Interferon Iron binding Anti microbial
109
What is the inflammatory response?
Prevents the spread of infectious agents in to nearby tissues Chemicals like histamine are released from mast cells and as a result Increasing bloow flow to area by vasodilation, which brings more w b c , and heat to make bodies defences more active Increased capillary permeability allowing w b c and fluid to leave capillaries and enter infected area Phagocytes are activated Complement and specific immune systems activated Symptoms of pain as chemicals released stimulate pain receptors, redness, heat and swelling
110
What are complemen proteins?
They act as opsonins, collection of proteins which can be activated in a cascade reaction, but once activated they can Destroy foreign called my ounching holes in their membrane Enhance phagocytosis Recruit other cells called chemotaxis to the scene Promote inflammation
111
What are interferon proteins b
Group of proteins produced by b lymphocytes and macrophages when infected by a virus. Interfere with viral replication, and activate nk cells, and macrophages
112
What are iron binding proteins b
Inhibit microbial growth by reducting amount of iron available to certain bacteria
113
What are antimicrobial proteins?
These can destroy a range of microorganisms and attract other cells involved in inflammation such as mast cells
114
What types of barriers are there in non specific immune system?
Mechanical barriers - mucous membranes in airways trap microorganisms Chemical barriers - lysozyme in tears saliva and breast milk and enzymes which destroy bacterial cell, acid in stomach Relfexes - coughing, sneezing Commensal flora - bacteria that inhabit compete with pathogenic bacteria for nutrients and cell surfaces Flushing action - constanct flow of tears and saliva wash away debris
115
What is the white and grey matter in dorsal horn of spinal cord?
White matter - ascending and descending fibres | Grey matter - cells and central terminals of primary afferents from the periphery
116
What are the layers in dorsal horn called??
Lamima 1 - most dorsal amd is a thin layer of cells, together with inhibitory interneurones Lamina 2 or the substantia gelatinosa
117
What is central sensitisation?
Neurones in spinal cord become sensitised so that ordinary sensory information such as pressure becomes transformed into pain info
118
What is the most important spinal cord pathway for signalling pain stimuli??
Lateral spinothalamic tract pathway
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What is the processing of pain in brain?
Arrives at reticular formation in brain stem alerting it of sensory stimuli of all kinds, which stimulates the thalamus and hypothalamus Thalamus stimulates limbic system, hypothalamus and frontal lobes. Direct electrical stimulation of the thalamus elicits pain sensations Limbic system - emotional aspects of pain Anterior cingulate cortex - integrating info about pain perception, alters individual of tissue damage, how serious the danger is and helps learn from occasion

P And P (4 decks)

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