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Organ Systems Final > Bone and Cartilage > Flashcards

Bone and Cartilage Flashcards

0
Q

What does cartilage consist of?

A

Chondrocytes and extracellular matrix

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1
Q

What is cartilage?

A

Avascular and aneural tissue

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2
Q

Where are chondrocytes located?

A

Within the ECM lacunae

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3
Q

True/False: Chondrocytes can divide and generate matrix.

A

True

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4
Q

What are chondrocytes replenished by?

A

surrounding perichondrium

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5
Q

What is perichondrium?

A

Connective tissue layer

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6
Q

What does the inner layer of perichondrium differentiate into?

A

Chondroblasts (i.e. growing cartilage (GC) cells)

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7
Q

When does a chondroblast become a chondrocyte?

A

When they stop dividing

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8
Q

ECM is richly hydrated. What leads to this?

A
  • High Gylcosaminoglycans (GAGs) to collagen ratio

- Creates a 60-80% level of hydration

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9
Q

GAG binds ______ tightly to confer resilience

A

Water

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10
Q

GAG bind some water loosely which permits what?

A

Diffusion of substances to and from the blood

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11
Q

What are characteristics of hyaline cartilage?

A

Contains homogeneous and amorphous matrix

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12
Q

Resilience makes hyaline cartilage useful for which type of surfaces?

A

Articular

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13
Q

What type of cartilage is the earliest form of cartilage in embryogenesis?

A

Hyaline

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14
Q

What does the hyaline cartilage become as a person grows?

A

Growth plates of growing bones

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15
Q

What are 3 functions of hyaline cartilage?

A
  • Supports
  • Reinforces
  • Resists compressive stress
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16
Q

Hyaline cartilage has been used as a model for what?

A

Endochondral ossification of bone

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17
Q

Hyaline cartilage covers the articular surfaces of moveable bone and forms what structures?

A

Costal cartilages

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18
Q

What is the difference between elastic cartilage and hyaline cartilage?

A

Elastic cartilage has more elastic fibers and contains a perichondrium

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19
Q

Where is elastic cartilage found?

A
  • Epiglottis
  • External ear
  • Auditory (Eustachian) tube
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20
Q

What is the function of elastic cartilage?

A

Maintains the shape of a structure while allowing great flexibility

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21
Q

What makes up fibrocartilage?

A

Combination of hyaline cartilage and dense regular CT

NO perichondrium

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22
Q

What two cell types are present in fibrocartilage? What do they generate?

A

Chondrocytes and fibroblasts; ECM

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23
Q

The CT component of fibrocartilage resists compression and shearing in which areas?

A
  • Intervertebral disc
  • Pubic symphysis
  • Articular discs in TMJ
  • Menisci in the knee
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24
Q

Where is cartilage originally formed from?

A

Mesenchyme

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25
Q

True/False: Mesenchymal cells are differentiated into chondroblasts

A

True

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26
Q

Cartilage growth occurs up to the end of adolescence in which two phases?

A
  • Appositional growth

- Interstitial growth

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27
Q

Both phases of cartilage growth are common, but which one becomes more predominate with age?

A

Appositional growth

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28
Q

At what period of growth does growth cease? Why?

A

Late teens; chondrocytes stop dividing

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29
Q

What is interstitial growth and were does it take place?

A

Division of the chondrocytes; within the distensible matrix

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30
Q

When does most interstitial growth occur?

A

Embryogenesis

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31
Q

What is taking place during interstitial growth during embryogenesis?

A

Mesenchymal cells aggregate and differentiate into chondroblasts

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32
Q

Once mesenchyme cells differentiate into chondroblasts, what do they secrete, form, and become?

A

ECM; lacunae; chondrocytes

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33
Q

Chondrocytes divide one or more times to form what groups?

A

Isogenic groups

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34
Q

Each chondrocyte lays down ______ causing it to form its own _______ and spread apart.

A

matrix; lacunae

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35
Q

As chondroblasts differentiate into chondrocytes, they form clusters that secrete what? Causing what?

A

secrete matrix; pushing cells apart

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36
Q

Where does appositional growth occur? During which stage of development?

A

On the surface of cartilage; later stages of development

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37
Q

Which cells of appositional growth differentiate into chondroblasts and what do they initiate?

A

Perichondrial cells; cartilage matrix formation

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38
Q

Matrix formation increases what type of mass?

A

Cartilage; making it more rigid

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39
Q

Cells of appositional growth mature into what type of cell and where are they embedded?

A

Chondrocytes; rigid matrix

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40
Q

The high water content of the matrix permits what action? To and from which structures, in what area?

A

Diffusion of nutrients and waste products; to and from the blood vessels; in the perichondrium

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41
Q

What are 3 reasons cartilage ceases growing in adulthood?

A
  • Avascularity
  • Immobility of chondrocytes
  • Limited ability of chondrocytes to proliferate
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42
Q

Repair following injury only occurs under what circumstances, involving which type of cells?

A

If the defect involves the perichondrium; which can provide new chondrocytes, but mostly dense CT.

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43
Q

In appositional growth, what happens to some damaged cartilage?

A

It is calcified and vascularized leading to bone substitution.

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44
Q

Why is it that articular cartilage cannot be regenerated?

A

It has no perichondrium on either the free or bone-facing surfaces

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45
Q

In what types does bone come?

A

Long, short, flat, irregular

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46
Q

All bone is formed by an outer layer of what type of bone, surrounding what type of interior layer?

A

compact (dense) bone; spongy (cancellous, trabecular) bone

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47
Q

Long bones illustrate which 5 structures within bone?

A
  • Diaphysis
  • Epiphysis
  • Metaphysis
  • Marrow (medullary) cavity
  • Outer bone surface
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48
Q

What is the diaphysis of a long bone?

A

The shaft

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49
Q

What is the epiphysis of a long bone?

A

Expanded end

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50
Q

What is the metaphysis of long bone?

A

It extends from diaphysis to the epiphyseal line

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51
Q

What does the marrow (medullary) cavity of the long bone form? What lines the the inner cavity?

A

The inner space (most bones are hollow); endosteum

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52
Q

What covers the outer bone surface of long bone?

A

Periosteum or articular cartilage

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53
Q

What is the periosteum?

A

Outer bone surface

54
Q

Which area of bone is innervated, thus sensing pain?

A

Periosteum

55
Q

What two layers make up the periosteum?

A

Fibrous layer and cellular layer

56
Q

The outer fibrous layer of the periosteum is made up of what type of tissue and is the site for what structure?

A

Dense irregular CT; tendon attachment

57
Q

The inner (deep) cellular osteogenic layer on the compact bone contains what type of cells?

A

Osteoprogenitor

58
Q

The endosteum (inner/trabecular surface) is made up of an epithelial layer that produces what type of bone cells and is lacking which type of layer?

A

Progenitor cells; no fibrous layer

59
Q

From where do osteoprogenitor cells originally differentiate?

A

Embryonic mesenchymal stem cells

60
Q

Where, in mature bone, are osteoprogenitor cells located?

A

On the internal and external bone surfaces

61
Q

In mature bone, what two areas do the osteoprogenitor cells form?

A
  • Endosteum

- Inner layer of the periosteum

62
Q

From where do the osteoblast differentiate?

A

Osteoprogenitor cells

63
Q

What function does the osteoblast retain after differentiation from osteoprogenitor cells?

A

Ability to divide

64
Q

Due to their ability to divide, what are the two directions an osteoblast can take?

A
  • Generate new bone cells

- Remain dormant in periosteum or endosteum

65
Q

What does the osteoblast secrete?

A
  • Bone matrix proteins (osteoid)

- alkaline phosphatase

66
Q

What is the purpose of osteoblast secretion of bone matrix proteins (osteoid) and alkaline phosphatases?

A

Promote matrix mineralization

67
Q

With what does alkaline phosphatase combine to form crystalization?

A

Calcium

68
Q

When enclosed in mineralized matrix, osteoblasts become which type of cell?

A

Osteocytes

69
Q

From which type of cells are osteocytes derived? Where are they contained?

A

Osteoblasts; lacunae

70
Q

What is lacunae?

A

Enclosed matrix spaces

71
Q

Osteocytes send cytoplasmic extensions through what structures leading to adjacent lacunae?

A

Canaliculi

72
Q

What is the purpose of the osteocyte sending out cytoplasmic extensions through the canaliculi to adjacent lacunae?

A

Permits contact with osteoblasts via gap junctions

73
Q

Osteocytes are able to respond to what type of forces applied to the bone?

A

mechanical

74
Q

What are two roles that osteocytes play with regard to structure of bone matrix?

A
  • Synthesizes

- Break down

75
Q

What causes osteocytes to synthesize new matrix or break it down?

A

Blood-calcium homeostasis (not so much with bone remodeling)

76
Q

From which type of cells are bone-lining cells derived?

A

Osteoblasts

77
Q

Where are bone-lining cells found?

A
  • Where bone is quiescent (not building or resorbing)
  • Periosteum
  • Endosteum
78
Q

What is the function of bone-lining cells?

A

Maintenance and nutritional support for osteocytes

79
Q

What is a regulatory action of bone-lining cells?

A

Regulate movement of calcium and phosphate in and out of the bone.

80
Q

What area of bone is the major source of blood?

A

Bone marrow

81
Q

Where do blood vessels enter bone?

A

Through epiphyseal and diaphyseal nutrient foramen

82
Q

Blood that nourishes bone tissue moves from what location, through bone tissue, and out via which veins?

A

Marrow space; periosteal veins

83
Q

Which marrow consists of blood cells in different stages of development?

A

Red marrow

84
Q

Red marrow is enmeshed in a network of which type of cells and material?

A

Reticular cells and fibers

85
Q

When does red marrow form blood cells and what happens over time?

A

Early years; diminishes with time and is replaced with yellow marrow.

86
Q

In adults, where is red marrow restricted? What are these reserves used for?

A

-Sternum
-Iliac crest
Available for bone marrow transplant

87
Q

What is the main consistency of yellow marrow?

A

Mostly fat cells

88
Q

In extreme cases of blood loss, what can happen to yellow marrow?

A

It can revert to red marrow

89
Q

What are other names for compact (dense) bone and what type of matrix does it contain?

A

Cortical bone or lamellar bone; high density matrix

90
Q

What are cylindrical layerings of concentric lamellae enclosing a central canal?

A

Osteons

91
Q

What feature of lamellae increases resistance to twisting forces?

A

Alternating direction of collagen fibers

92
Q

What is at the center of an osteon?

A

Central canal

93
Q

What structures run through the central osteonal (Haversion) canal?

A
  • Artery with capillaries
  • Vein
  • Nerve fiber
94
Q

Periosteal blood vessels cary blood to the osteocytes via which canals?

A

Perforating (Volkmann’s) canals

95
Q

Spongy (cancellous) bone is organized into _________ separated by _____ _______, but otherwise has many similarities to compact bone.

A

trabeculae; marrow spaces

96
Q

True/False: Spongy bone contains osteon (Haversion systems)

A

FALSE!!! Spongy bone does NOT have osteon - Haversion systems are ONLY found in compact bone!!

97
Q

Spongy bone lays down in which structure?

A

Lamellae

98
Q

Trabeculae are surrounded by ___________ which also contains which two types of cells?

A

endosteum; osteoblasts and osteoclasts

99
Q

True/False: Osteocytes are found within lacunae of spongy bone, interconnected by canaliculi.

A

True

100
Q

True/False: Spongy bone is the precursor to compact bone during bone development.

A

True

101
Q

Spongy bone trabeculae are organized along force lines in order to…?

A

Maximally resist tension or compression forces

102
Q

Homeobox genes signal what structures to form somites?

A

Paraxial mesoderm segments

103
Q

Somites establish early spinal levels (cervical, thoracic, etc.) of what three structures?

A
  • Bones
  • Muscle
  • Dermis
104
Q

In somite differentiation, sclerotome surround neural tube to form what two structures?

A

Vertebrae and ribs

105
Q

In somite differentiation, dermatome becomes…

A

dermis of the skin

106
Q

In somite differentiation, myotome becomes…

A

muscles of the body below the neck

107
Q

Fusion of dense and loose tissue of adjacent somites forms what?

A

the intersegmental vertebra

108
Q

The notochord of somites eventually becomes what structure within vertebral bodies?

A

Nucleus pulposus

109
Q

Due to resegmentation of somites myotomes span…

A

adjacent vertebrae (touching the one above and one below, i.e. bottom half of T5 and top half of T6)

110
Q

Due to resegmentation of somites, spinal nerves get interposed….

A

Between vertebrae (which is why we have a C8 nerve root, but no C8 vertebrae)

111
Q

How is it that we have 8 cervical nerves but only 7 cervical vertebrae? (Hint: what makes up the “8th” cervical vertebrae)

A

A proatlas anlage that separates into portions of the basioccipital bone and the dens of the axis bone

112
Q

Limb development comes from?

A

Local limb bud tissue

113
Q

What is the first major tissue of limb to differentiate from mesenchyme?

A

Bone

114
Q

True/False: In limb development, CT (tendons and fascia) are laid out along bone segments.

A

True

115
Q

True/False: Cells of each somite region begin forming specific tissues prior to arriving at their destination.

A

FALSE!!! Cells of each somite region migrate separately to target destinations before forming specific tissue

116
Q

Sclerotome cells migrate ________ to form what?

A

medially; bones (vertebrae and ribs)

117
Q

Dermatome cells migrate in which direction in relation to ectoderm to form what?

A

under; connective tissue of skin (dermis)

118
Q

Myotome cells migrate to form what structures, within which areas?

A

skeletal muscle; within body and limbs

119
Q

Which part of mesoderm expands to form limb buds?

A

Lateral plate mesoderm

120
Q

Myotomal cells differentiate into muscle and follow what structures during migration?

A

tendons

121
Q

From what tissue does the epidermis derive?

A

ectoderm

122
Q

In bone pattern formation, what does the AER (apical ectodermal ridge) determine, where, and using which factor?

A

growth of bones; along proximal-distal axis; using fibroblast growth factor (FGF)

123
Q

In bone pattern formation, what does the ZPA (zone of polarizing activity) determine and using which factor?

A

Pattern of bones (which bones: radius, ulna, etc.) using sonic hedgehog (Shh)

124
Q

True/False: Shh and FGF mutually enhance each other through feedback control

A

True

125
Q

What determines the differentiation of digits?

A

Concentration gradient of Shh factor

126
Q

Where is the highest concentration of Shh?

A

On the side of the 5th digit (digiti minimi)

127
Q

Where is the lowest concentration of Shh?

A

Technically, the 2nd digit, because there is no Shh present at the pollus.

128
Q

What process induced by Shh produces fingers?

A

Interdigital apoptosis

129
Q

Disruption of interdigital apoptosis by Shh results in what condition? Which areas are most affected?

A

Syndactyly; most often affecting digist 3, 4, and/or 5

130
Q

True/False: Hox genes are turned on all at once creating bones along the limb

A

FALSE!!! Sets of Hox genes are turned on SEQUENTIALLY, each set producing specific bones along the longitudinal axis of the limb.

131
Q

What is the condition, phocomelia?

A

Absence of proximal segments, but normal distal segements (hands coming from the shoulder - no humerus, radius, or ulna)

132
Q

What drug was associated with increased phocomelia, and what seemed to be causing the problem?

A

Thalidomide; blocks angiogenesis leading to reduction of FGF release.

Organ Systems Final (5 decks)

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