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Kin 121 > bmsc midterm 2 cards > Flashcards

bmsc midterm 2 cards Flashcards

1
Q

the central nervous system

A

brain and spinal cord
seperated into gray matter a and white matter
gray consists: consists of unmyelinated somas, dendrites and axons,
white: mainly myelinated axons

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2
Q

spinal cord

A

major pathways for information flowing back and forth between the brain and the skin, joints and muscles of the body
divided into 4 segments:
cervical (8)
thoracic (12)
lumbar (5)
sacral (5)
coccygeal (1)

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3
Q

ascending tracts
descending tracts

A

ascending tracts: carry sensory information to the brain
dorsal and external lateral

descending tracts: carry commands to motor neurons
ventral and interior lateral

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4
Q

spinal reflex

A

the spinal cord can act as the integrating center to initiate a response to a stimulus without receiving input from the brain

important in body movement

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5
Q

brain

A

organ providing human species with its unique attributes

1400g, 1.4 kg, 85 billion neurons, many containing thousands of synapses

6 major divisions:
cerebrum
cerebellum
diencephalon
brainstem: midbrain, pons, medulla

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6
Q

ultimate emergent property

A

the brain
the ultimate emergent property: how do chemical and electrical signals in neurons lead to complex behaviours?

individual neurons reductionist, then groups of neurons (circuits, pathways, networks) then complex behaviour

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7
Q

brainstem

A

oldest region, 4 major regions
mid brain, pons, medulla, and recticular formation

ascending and descending tracts run through the brain stem

contain 11 of 12 cranial nerves: carry sensory and motor info for head and neck

contain many nuclei
involved in many basic processes in the body including arousal and sleep, muscle tone and stretch reflexes, coordination of breathing, blood pressure regulation and modulation of pain

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8
Q

medulla (part of brainstem)

A

right at the junction of the spinal cord
white matter contain all ascending somatosensory tracts and descending corticospinal tracts

90% of corticospinal tracts decussate (crossover) at the pyramids
why the left side of brain controls the right body

nuclei in the medulla control many involuntary functions, including the cardiovascular center and the medullary respiratory center

contains the vomiting center
contains the deglutition center (swallowing)
caughing, sneezing, hiccuping

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9
Q

nuclei and ganglia

A

nuclei: clusters of cell bodies in CNS
ganglia: clusters of cell bodies in PNS

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10
Q

dorsal horn and ventral horn (grey matter)

A

parts of the gray matter
info comes out (efferent) the ventral root and within the horns there are nuceli

the ventral horn consists of somatic motor nuclei and autonomic efferent nuclei

dorsal horn consists of somatic sensory nuclei ( info from the skin to the brain)
viscreal sensory nuceli carrys info from internal organs than to the brain

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11
Q

pons and midbrain

A

pons: contain nuceli and tracts
relays info between the cerebellum and cerebrum
assists the medulla in the coordination of breathing

midbrain (mesencephalon): junction between lower brainstem and diencephalon (nuclei and tracts)
primary function is controlling eye movement
also relay auditory and visual reflexes (movement of body in response to these stimuli)
contains the substania nigra

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12
Q

reticular formation

A

extends throughout the brainstem: small clusters of neuronal cell bodies interspersed among tracts (ascending and descending)

important in consciousness, arousal, attention, and alertness

reticular activating system RAS inactivated during sleep, damage can induce coma

regulates muscle tone, assists in vital functions (HR,BP, resp rate)

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13
Q

cerebellum

A

second largest brain structure
two cerebellar hemispheres

processes sensory info related to movement and coordinates the execution of movement

sends feedback signals to motor areas of the cerebral cortex, via its connections to the thalamus and pons helping to correct any erros and smooth the movements

main area regulating posture and balance

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14
Q

diencephalon

A

lies between the brain stem and cerebrum

two primary structures: thalamus and hypothalamus
two endocrine structures: pineal gland and pituitary

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15
Q

thalamus

A

part of the diencephalon
relay center: receives sensory info from optic tract, ears, spinal cord and relays it to relevant sensory areas in cortex
relays info from cerebellum to motor areas in cortex

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16
Q

pineal gland

A

part of the diencephalon
cyclically releases melatonin involved in sleep/wake

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17
Q

hypothalamus

A

part of the diencephalon
center for homeostasis
influences autonomic and endocrine function

functions: activates sympathetic nervous system
maintains body temp
controls body osmolarity
controls reproductive functions
controls food intake
influences behaviour/emotions
influences cardiovascular control

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18
Q

pituitary gland

A

endocrine structure in the diencephalon

output of the hypothalamus

posterior pituitary is neural tissue, an extension of the brain that secretes neurohormones made in the hypothalamus

anterior pituitary is endocrine tissue
one hormone releases that is involved in a series of hormones

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19
Q

cerebrum

A

largest part of the brain

gray matter includes the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system

white matter: tracts,
area of higher processing “seat of intelligence”

two hemispheres divided into 4 lobes, connected by corpus callosum
frontal lobe, pariental temporal, occipital

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20
Q

basal nuclei (ganglia) should be nuclei but can be called ganglia

A

three nuclei collectively termed the basal ganglia (nuclei)
-globus pallidus, putamen, caudate nucleus

major job is regulating the initiation and termination of movement

receives input from cerebral cortex and provides output to motor portions of the cortex

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21
Q

limbic system

A

“emotional brain” plays a role in a range of emotions, including pain, pleasure, anger, affection

also believed to play a primary role in learning and memory

3 major componetns: cingulate gyrus
amygdala (emotion)
hippocampus (memory)

22
Q

cerebral cortex

A

outermost layer of the cerebrum
integrating center for CNS

functionally divided into 3 specializations:
1)sensory areas (translate sensory input into perception)
2) motor areas (direct skeletal muscle movement)
3) association areas (integrate info from sensory and motor areas and help direct voluntary behaviours and deal with complex integrative functions)

23
Q

lobes

A

frontal lobe: primary motor cortex, motor association area (premotor cortex)

parietal lobe: primary somatic sensory cortex, sensory association areas

occipital lobe: vison,

temporal lobe: hearing, balance

24
Q

cerebral laterlization (dominance)

A

distribution of functional areas in the two hemispheres is not symmetrical

writing in the right hemisphere why your dominant in the right hemisphere
this is just avg not for sure

25
Q

sensory system purpose

A

provides infro about the environment inside and outside the body

26
Q

special senses vs somatic sense (both processed consciouslly)

A

specical:vision, hearing, taste, smell, equilbrium

somatic: touch, temperature, pain, itch, proprioception

27
Q

somatic stimuli vs viscreal stimuli (both subconscious)

A

somatic: muscle length and tension, proprioception

viscreal: blood pressure, distension of gastrointestinal tract, blood glucose concentration, internal body temp

28
Q

general properties of sensory systems

A

a sensory neuron with a transducer (receptor), that converts a physical stimulus into a intracellular signal (change in membrane potential),

usually through the opening or closing of gated channels

29
Q

simple, complex, special sensory receptors

A

simple receptors: are neurons with free nerve endings. may have myelinated or unmyelinated

complex neural receptors: have nerve endings enclosed in connective tissue capsules, touch/proprioception

most special senses are cells that release neurotransmitter onto sensory neurons, initiating action potenitals.

30
Q

types of sensory receptors

A

chemoreceptors: oxygen, pH, various organic molecules such as glucose
blood chemoreceptors, nociceptors, taste, smell

mechanoreceptors: pressure (baroreceptors), cell stretch (osmoreceptors), vibration, sound
touch, proprioceptors, auditory, balance

photoreceptors: photons of light, vision (rodes and cones)

thermoreceptors: varying degrees of heat, thermal receptors, nociceptors

31
Q

mechanically gated channels

A

coverts mechanical stimulus into electrical signal

receptor potential aka generator potential (equivalent to graded potential)

32
Q

receptive fields

A

physical area where a sensory receptor can respond within
sensory neurons are activated by stimuli and fall within the physical area
size depends on the type of sensory receptor
if there is convergence of multiple primary neurons onto a secondary neuron, meaning multiple primary will synapses on a secondary
convergence creates a large receptive field

small fields in sensitive areas

33
Q

CNS integrates sensory information

A

visceral sensory info is integrated in the brain stem and spinal cord

almost all special and somatic sensory info routed through the thalamus
thalamus directs it to the relevant cortical centers

olfactory pathwyas from the nose project through the olfactory bulb to the olfactory cortex

equilbrium pathways project primarily to the cerebellum

34
Q

special senses and somatic senses

A

special senses: have dedicated cortical regions

somatic senses: integrated in the primary somatosensory cortex

35
Q

CNS distinguishes four properties of stimulus.
this is how CNS detect one sensation from the other

A

1) modality- the physical stimuli being sensed, determined by the sensory receptor being activated, temperature vs touch receptor and where the pathways terminate in the brain
2)location
3)intensity
4)duration

36
Q

location of stimulus

A

coded according to which receptive fields are being activated
Most sensory stimuli for specific regions of the body are projected to particular areas of the somatosensory cortex
determined by where in teh cerebral cortex sensory info is projected to
large regions of the cortex dedicated to large regions of the body such as touch

37
Q

intensity and duration of stimulus

A

because AP amplitude is constant, intensity cannot be determined by amplitude.
intensity is determined by the number of receptors being activated (population coding) and the frequency of action potentials coming from those receptors (frequency coding)

duration of stimulus is determined by how long APs are being activated

38
Q

duration also depends on receptor adaptation
tonic vs phasic

A

tonic receptors: slowly adapting receptors that respond for the duration of a stimulus
parameters that need to be constantly monitored

phasic receptors: rapidly adapt to a constant stimulus and turn off
respond of a change in parameter, stop once stimulus costant

39
Q

sensory pathway specificity

A

1) Each receptor is most sensitive to a particular type of stimulus
2) a stimulus above threshold initiates AP’s in a sensory neuron that project to the CNS
3) stimulus intensity and duration are coded in the pattern of AP’s reaching the CNS
4) stimulus location and modality are coded according to which receptors are activated or by the timing of receptor activation
5) each sensory pathway projects to a specific region of the cerebral cortex dedicated to a particular receptive field. the brain can then tell the origin of each incoming signal

40
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

involuntary control of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, many glands and some adipose tissue
subdivided: sympathetic (fight of flight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest)

the autonomic nervous system works closely with the endocrine system and behavioural systems to maintain homeostasis

41
Q

autonomic pathways have two efferent neurons in series

A

1 preganglionic will synapse with 8 or 9 postganglionic neuron

CNS—> preganglionic–> autonomic—> postganglionic—-> target tissue (smooth muscle, gland etc)

42
Q

sympathetic (pre and post ganglionic)

A

ganglia are mainly found in two ganglion chains running along side vertebral column

preganglionic neurons orginate in thoracic and lumbar regions

short preganglionic, long post ganglionic neurons

43
Q

parasympathetic

A

preganglionic neurons orginate in the brainstem and exit via cranial nerves or from the sacral region of the spinal cord

ganglia are mainly located on or near the target organs

long preganglionic, short postganglionic neurons

cranial nerve x (vagus) contains 75% of all parasympathetic neurons

44
Q

the autonomic nervous system uses a variety of chemical signals (aCH and norepinephrine)

A

preganglionic always uses acetlycholine (para and symp) onto nicotinic receptors
postganglionic use nicotonic receptors (both in para and symp)

nicotinic=ionotropic

sympathetic pathways uses acetlycholine and norepinephrine
most post ganglionic use norepinephrine onto muscarinic

parasympathetic pathways uses just aCH meaning most of their post ganglionic receptors use acetlycholine onto muscarinic

adrenergic and muscarinic are metabotropic

45
Q

the adrenal medulla secretes catecholamines

A

adrenal medulla is a specialized neuroendocrine structure associated with sympathetic nervous system
often described as a modified sympathetic ganglion, contain chromaffin cells (modified ganglion cells no axons and release epinephrine) which are modified postganglionic neurons
sits on top of the kidneys, it has 2 structures the adrenal cortex (true endocrine tissue) and adrenal medulla (neuroendocrine tissue)

46
Q

autonomic pathways (postganglionic)

A

target smooth and cardiac muscle, many exocrine glands, a few endorcrine glands, lymphoid tissue, liver and some adipose tissue

autonomic varicosities has a whole bunch of terminals and receptors to cause a larger response in the target tissue

receptors exist across the tissue not under the varicosities, neurotransmitters diffuse
to receptors

47
Q

varicosities

A

AP would go through the axon of postganglionic than into the varicosities
like axon terminals, they contain the enzymes necessary to create the neurotransmitters synethize/detachh them
aCH nonpinphrine,

48
Q

neurotransmitters are synethesized in the axon/varicosities

A

travels down the axon into a bunch of varicosities
1) AP arrives at varicosity
2) depolarization opens voltaged gated Ca channels
3) Ca entry triggers exocytosis of synaptic vesicles
4) NE (neuroepinphrine) binds to adgrenergic receptor on target
5) receptor activation ceases when NE diffuses away from the synapse
6)NE is removed from the synapse
7) NE can be taken back into synaptic vesicles for re-release
8) NE is metabolized by monoamine oxidase (MAO)

aCH synthesized from choline and acetly CoA
1) acetlycholine is made from choline and acetyl CoA
2) in the synaptic cleft, ACH is rapidly broken down by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase
3) choline is transported back into the axon terminal by cotransport with Na
4) recycled choline is used to make more ACH
no transporter for ACH has to be broken down

49
Q

autonomic receptors have multiple subtypes
(sympathetic adrenergic)
(parasympathetic cholinergic)

A

sympathetic adrenergic (NE and E) receptors are all g-protein coupled receptors (metabotropic receptors)
two main categories: alpha (most common) and beta with multiple subtypes

parasympathetic cholinergic (ACH) receptors in target tissues are g-protein coupled receptors: muscarinic receptors
M1, M2, M3

50
Q

g protein coupled receptors
interaction with ion channels
and interaction with membrane bound enzyme

A

interaction with ion channels: can lead to opening or closing of channel depending on g protein

interaction with membrane bound enzymes: two main types:
phospholipase C signal transduction pathway -inc in intracellular Ca mediates cellular response

adenylyl cyclase signal transduction pathway -PKA phosphorylates proteins to cause a cellular response

51
Q

summary of pre and post ganglionic and parasympathetic/sympathetic

A

autonomic pathwyas consist of pre and postganglioonic neurons in series, with adrenal medulla being the exception
preganglionic acetylcholine and post ganglionic is nictinic receptors

sympathetic: most active uring stressful times
most postgagnlionic is nonpinephrine–> target tissue
adrenergic receptors (beta/alpha)
preganglionic neurons orginate in lumbar and thoracic
ganglia is located just outside spinal cord (paraverterbral)

parasympathetic: most active during rest- and digest
most postganglionic neurons acetlycholine –target tissue muscarnic receptors
peganglionic orginate in brainsttem and sacral region of spine
ganglia located on or near target tissue

Kin 121 (8 decks)

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