blood and hematopoietic tissue Flashcards

Question

these are carbohydrate chain that has a specific sequence

Answer 1

antigens - molecules/ proteins that react with the antibody

Answer 2

(refer to image for diagram) Type 2 precursor chain: must assemble first to form ABO chain "H" antigen: contains a blood type already 3 stages: - Stay as “H” antigen = blood type O - Converts to A-antigen = blood type A - Converts to B-antigen = blood type B (blood type AB: has A and B antigen) "A" antigen: "B" antigen:

Answer 3

type A: antigens - A & H antibodies - B type B: antigens - B & H antibodies - A type AB: antigens - A, B & H antibodies - nil type O: antigens - H antibodies - B & A

Answer 4

as it lacks A and B antigens on the surface of RBC

Answer 5

type AB blood - often called "royal blood" - as it has both A and B antigens but no anti-a or anti-B antibodies in the plasma

Answer 6

Universal donor (Type O, especially O negative) → Can give blood to anyone because it has no antigens that could cause a reaction. Universal recipient (Type AB, especially AB positive) → Can receive blood from anyone because it has no antibodies to attack donor blood.

Answer 7

Bombay Phenotype (rare blood type) - does not have H antigen (which is needed to form A or B antigens) - first discovered in India - they appear as type O but cannot receive regular O blood

Answer 8

mother's immune system may see the baby's Rh protein as a threat and attack it. = Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDFN)?

Answer 9

Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDFN) - usually happens in the second pregnancy - example: Mother is Rh (-), Baby is Rh (+) since they have different blood types, higher chance that mom attacks the fetus due to hemolysis of RBC

Answer 10

first pregnancy: not a problem - mother's immune system is exposed to Rh-positive cells for the first time and does not have a strong reaction yet second pregnancy: dangerous - mother’s immune system "recognized" the Rh protein and attacks the baby’s red blood cells

Answer 11

Rh factor is determined by the presence of the Rh protein. If they truly have no Rh protein, they would be classified as Rh-negative (O−), but there may be genetic variations.

Answer 12

RhAG Rh-associated glycoproteins

Answer 13

RhAG (Rh-associated glycoprotein)

Answer 14

RhCE and RhD Proteins - different variation of these proteins affect blood compatibility in transfusions *RhD is clincally ignificant in preggy mum

Answer 15

(refer to ppt) spherocyte: - round, no central pale area - less flexible, breaks easily - seen in hereditary spherocytosis, autoimmune hemolysis ellipocyte/ ovalocyte: - oval or elongated - less flexible but still moves through vessels - seen in hereditary elliptocytosis, iron deficiency anemia

Answer 16

a large protein made up of 4 subunits 2 types of globin chains - 2 alpha - 2 non-alpha which can be β (beta), γ (gamma), or δ (delta), depending on the hemoglobin type = these 4 chains are folded and connected tgt

Answer 17

composed of 4subunits: 1. HbA (Adult Hgb) most common type in adults major hemoglobin in the body made of 2 alpha and 2 beta chains 2. HbA2 (less than HbA) made of 2 alpha and 2 delta chains 3. HbF (Fetal Hgb) found during newborn and at birth made of 2 alpha and 2 gamma chains it holds onto oxygen better than adult hemoglobin to help the baby get oxygen from the mother 4. HbA1C reflects glucose concentration in blood for the past 2-4 months - high HbA1C may indicate diabetes

Answer 18

1. Protoporphyrin IX (PPIX) ring ■ Fe2+: binds to the O2 molecule 2. Ferrous Iron (Fe²⁺) ■ RBC with ferric ion = carboxyhemoglobin [ Fe²⁺ is converted to Fe³⁺ = forms carboxyhemoglobin, which cannot bind oxygen properly]

Answer 19

4 heme groups, one in each subunit 4 oxygen molecules is carries in 1 Hgb (since each heme group binds to one oxygen)

Answer 20

1. Tense ("T") State no proportion/ conformation of protein no O2 found, only 2,3-BPG (Bisphosphoglycerate) 2. Relaxed ("R") State once O2 binds to heme, have movement/ change in the conformation a-subunit and another β-subunit rotate 15 degree from its normal conformation

Answer 21

CO₂ Transport in the Tissues (Venous Blood – Deoxygenated Blood): 1. CO₂ Enters RBCs → CO₂ from tissues enters the RBC 2. Carbonic Acid Formation → Inside the RBC, CO₂ combines with H₂O to form carbonic acid (H₂CO₃) → Sped up by an enzyme called carbonic anhydrase 3. Breakdown of Carbonic Acid → Carbonic acid quickly splits into: Bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) (which is sent out of the RBC) Hydrogen ion (H⁺) (which stays inside the RBC) 4. Chloride Shift → To keep the electrical balance, a chloride ion (Cl⁻) enters the RBC as bicarbonate leaves 5. Oxygen Release → The H⁺ binds to hemoglobin, causing it to release oxygen into the tissues 6. Deoxygenated Hemoglobin → Hemoglobin now carries CO₂ instead of oxygen CO₂ Release in the Lungs (Arterial Blood – Oxygenated Blood): 1. Oxygen Enters RBCs → Oxygen from the lungs binds to hemoglobin, forcing H⁺ to be released. 2. CO₂ Formation → The free H⁺ combines with bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) inside the RBC to form carbonic acid (H₂CO₃). 3. Carbonic Acid Breakdown → Carbonic acid splits back into CO₂ and water (H₂O). 4. Reverse Chloride Shift → Bicarbonate enters the RBC, while chloride exits to maintain balance. 5. CO₂ Expelled → The newly formed CO₂ diffuses out of the RBC and is exhaled through the lungs. [In tissues, CO₂ enters RBCs, turns into carbonic acid, releases H⁺, and helps unload oxygen. In the lungs, oxygen binds to hemoglobin, which forces H⁺ to recombine with bicarbonate, creating CO₂ that is exhaled. The chloride shift helps maintain balance in RBCs.]

Answer 22

(transes) curve A: hemoglobin tends to bind O2 more tightly than normal ● Increased pH, decreased H ions ● Decreased pCO2 ● Decreased 2,3-DPG ● Decreased temperature curve B: pH (H⁺): Normal arnd 7.35-7.45 pCO₂ (partial pressure of CO₂): Normal (35-45 mmHg) 2,3-DPG (Diphosphoglycerate): Normal lvls Temperature: Normal, 37°C curve C: results in release of O2 and decreased affinity of hemoglobin to O2 ● Decreased pH, Increased H ions ● Increased pCO2 (partial pressure) ● Increased 2,3-DPG ● Increased temperature

Answer 23

Hemoglobin-Oxygen Dissociation Curve

Answer 24

reticulocytes/ retics - usually in small amounts

Answer 25

stay in the BM for abt 2 days then enter the blood stream for 1 day or more before fully maturing into RBC

Answer 26

Reticulocytes: - are immature - contains cytoplasmic remnants (mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, nucleus) - larger than rbc Erythrocytes: - no cytoplasmic inclusions

Answer 27

one can have anemia - the bone marrow compensates w the decrease mature RBCs by releasing more immature RBCs in the peripheral blood

Answer 28

Methylene Blue Stain - to see all the cell parts inside reticulocytes - stains cytoplasmic remnants, revealing identity

Answer 29

○ O2 Transport ○ CO2 Transport

Answer 30

Leukocytes or White Blood Cells (WBCs)

Answer 31

1. Innate Immune System [first line of defense] - majority of leukocytes - immune system that does not specify which foreign material is attacked, non-specific response 2. Adaptive Immune System [second line of defense] - largely performed by the lymphocytes - response is highly specific - it memorize the foreign material [response is faster and stronger] - once the 2nd attack happens, it will hv a heightened response

Answer 32

1. granulocytes - contains cytoplasmic granules that are evident in the peripheral blood smear a. neutrophils - polymorphonuclear neutrophil (PMN) [having a nucleus with multiple shapes (lobes) PMN and Neutrophils are the same thing—PMN is just a scientific term] - increase = bacterial infection - neutrophil band immature neutrophils signify bacterial infection b. eosinophils - contains 2 lobes - stained is orange/slightly-pinker then neutrophils - increase = parasitic infections or allergic reactions c. basophils - rare granulocytes - not normally seen in peripheral blood blood smear - stain is darer compared to other WBC - increases = allergic reactions 2. mononuclear cells a. monocytes - macrophage that travels in the peripheral blood - from blood to tissues = matures to macrophages - phagocytic cells, larger cells often in a peripheral blood smear b. lymphocytes - involves in adaptive immunity - approx size of and RBC - thin rim of cytoplasm - majority of the portion ins covered by nucleus

Answer 33

Polymorphonuclear Neutrophil (PMN)

Answer 34

Neutrophil Bands

Answer 35

B-Lymphocytes [make antibodies] T-Lymphocytes [directly attack infected or cancerous cells]

Answer 36

neutrophils classification of granules: - pri granules - sec granules - tertiary granules - secretory granules

Answer 37

Chemotaxis [body release chemokines to call neutrophils. once detected, it moves toward the site of innfection] two types: ○ Intravascular Chemotaxis - occurs in the BV ○ Extravascular Chemotaxis

Answer 38

Intravascular Chemotaxis: 1. Tethering and Rolling - Integrine receptors in N will come out of the surface and this protein will transiently bind to the selectins of epithelium - In response to further stimulation by chemokines, it will release/ provide more integrins in the surface [N slow down in the blood integrins on the N surface stick lightly to selectins on BV walls. N "rolls" along the BV wall, looking for an exit.] 2. Adhesion - When more integrins are present, it will bind with ICAM-1, an adhesion molecules found in epithelium [stronger infection signal (chemokines), they produce more integrins.] - It will tightly bind to integrins of the N, where it will stay 3. Crawling - Endothelium will provide a way for N to migrate out of the BV - N will extend its pseudopods on the tight junctions of endothelium - Communication between integrins and selectins will permit the N to move through tight junctions 4. Diapedesis - Once it migrates out of tight junctions, it can migrate out of the BV - It will then migrate to the tissues towards the site of infection Extravascular Chemotaxis: - once at the site of tissue injury , the neutrophil must first recognize any foreign substances before phagocytosis can occur - N have variety of receptors on their cell membranes that recognize and bind to bacteria, foreign organisms and other infectious agents ✔ Fc receptors ✔ Complement receptors ✔ Toll-like receptors

Answer 39

Fc receptors: antibody recognizing receptors recognize microorganisms that are covered by antibodies Complement receptors: recognize complement proteins - increase during inflammation covers an antigen = N can recognize Toll-like receptors: found in phagocytic cells highly specific towards certain microorganism recently discovered as part of the adaptive immunity

Answer 40

1. Starts with the Recognition of the foreign material which is facilitated by surface receptors 2. Once it recognizes, it will form pseudopods, extending and covering the whole foreign material 3. Once it is covered completely, it will engulf the foreign material using phagosome - Vesicle inside the neutrophil containing foreign material 4. Phagosome will combine w Lysosome to form Phagolysosome = release content to bacteria 5. Result to the digestion of the material and the exocytosis of the foreign material

Answer 41

increase noticeably, a process called respiratory burst.

Answer 42

respiratory burst in neutrophils - important as it produces ROS, reactive oxygen species, which kills and degrades bacteria

Answer 43

reactive oxygen species (ROS) - after N engulfs a pathogen, it increase O2 consumption, triggering respiratory burst = generates ROS to destroy pathogen

Answer 44

1. Respiratory Burst & Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) 2. Myeloperoxidase System (MPO System) - Azurophilic (Pri) Granules taht contains enzyme Myeloperoxidase (MPO) will catalyze the formation od Hypochlorous Acid from H ions, Cl ions, and Hydrogen Peroxide inside the phagosome, which can easily degrade the foreign material 3. Phagocyte Oxidase System - increased O2 and glucose utilization in WBC - glucose inside N will stimulate the pentose phosphate pathway, which helps degrade glucose - NADPH (byproduct) is detected by the enzyme NAPDHH oxidase which will then stimulate the prodution of rective O2 species that can form other species

Answer 45

NETosis - unique neutrophil cell death that results to the release of neutrophil extracellular (NETs) ○ Once the neutrophil finishes it job, it will release all of its contents to the extracellular fluid ○ Histones/Nucleosomes inside the neutrophils are unwound to form the actual length of Neutrophil DNA, resulting to a net-like appendix that contains the original granules ○ This net/granules catches/traps the other foreign materials that was not phagocytosed, degraded using the granules that are also bound to the net [cell releases a web-like DNA net (NET) coated with toxic granules to trap and kill bacteria. This ensures that even after the neutrophil dies, it continues fighting infection. However, excessive NETs can lead to inflammation and autoimmune diseases.]

Answer 46

thrombocytes - can be divided into 4 zone base on organization and function ○ Peripheral zone ○ Structural zone ○ Organelle zone ○ Membrane system

Answer 47

○ Peripheral zone Outermost portion Contains glycocalyx and membrane ○ Structural zone Contains microtubules, actin, and myosin Maintains the shape of the platelets ○ Organelle zone Somehow still contains small organelles inside its body (mitochondrion, glycogen, granules that contain proteins involved in coagulation, and some lysosomes) ○ Membrane system A series of open system inside platelets Surface-Connected Canalicular System ● Where calcium is usually bound ● In cases of normal platelets, it has a shape of concave/biconcave; however, in cases of activation, its surface forms pseudopods which will try to bind together to other platelets or other tissues ■ Dense Tubular System

Answer 48

○ Peripheral zone glycocalyx and membrane ○ Structural zone microtubules, actin, and myosin - maintains the shape

Answer 49

Surface-Connected Canalicular System – Acts like channels inside the platelet, storing calcium, which is important for clotting. - When platelets are inactive, they are disc-shaped, but when activated, they form extensions (pseudopods) to stick to other platelets and tissues. Dense Tubular System – Stores calcium and other molecules needed for platelet activation and blood clotting.

Answer 50

3 stages: ○ Primary hemostasis vasoconstriction platelet activation primary product if for platelet plug ○ Secondary hemostasis coagulation system is activated final product is the fibrin clot ○ Fibrinolysis degradation of fibrin clot

Answer 51

Bone marrow - For adult age, it is usually restricted here Lymph nodes Spleen Liver Thymus

Answer 52

bone marrow

Answer 53

○ Yellow Marrow Contains adipose tissues ○ Red Marrow Sites of active production of RBC & WBCs In adults, restricted to: ● Sternum ● Vertebrae ● Scapulae ● Pelvis ● Ribs ● Skull ● Proximal portion of long bones

Answer 54

Hematopoietic Cord which contains - hematopoietic microenvironment that is essential and beneficial to the maturity of the RBCs and WBCs - numerous immature blood cells

Answer 55

done through bone marrow biopsy process collected in the lliac crest (pelvis)