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Blood Flashcards

1
Q

Define blood?

A

Blood is a body fluid in the human body and is technically considered as connective tissue.

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2
Q

Why is blood described as a connective tissue?

A

Because it provides one of the means of communication between the cells of different parts of the body and the external environment.

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3
Q

After centrifugation, what is the percentage of plasma and cells in a test-tube?

A

Plasma about 55 % and cells about 45 %.

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4
Q

List the functions of blood?

A

It carries:
-oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs for excretion.

  • nutrient materials from the alimentary tract to the tissues and cell waste materials to the excretory organs.(e.g kidneys and liver)
  • hormones secreted by endocrine glands to their target glands and tissues.
  • heat produced in active tissues to other less active tissues.
  • protective substances like antibodies, to areas of infection.
  • materials that clot blood, preventing its loss from a ruptured blood vessel.
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5
Q

Give examples of nutrients that the blood transport?

A
  • Glucose
  • Amino acids
  • Vitamins
  • Minerals
  • Fatty acids.
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6
Q

Red blood cells are also called ___________.

A

erythrocytes

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7
Q

What is the pH of blood?

A

Between 7.35 and 7.45.

Note: Blood is slightly alkaline.

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8
Q

Why does blood appear red?

A

Because it contains high amount of hemoglobin(a molecule found on RBCs).

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9
Q

What is the colour of arterial blood and why is it that colour?

A

Bright red. Because arterial blood contains high levels of oxygen.

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10
Q

What are the components of blood?

A
  • Plasma
  • RBCs
  • WBCs
  • Platelets
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11
Q

What is plasma?

A

It is a clear, straw-coloured, watery fluid, in which different types of cells are suspended.

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12
Q

What are the constituents of plasma?

A

Water and dissolved substances.

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13
Q

Name the dissolved substances in plasma?

A
  • Plasma proteins
  • Inorganic salts
  • Nutrient materials(from digested food)
  • Organic waste materials
  • Hormones
  • Gases
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14
Q

Plasma protein make up about ___ % of plasma.

A

7

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15
Q

What are some characteristics of plasma proteins?

A
  • They are big molecules(cannot pass through capillary pores)
  • Bring about viscosity to plasma(albumin and fibrinogen)
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16
Q

Give examples of plasma proteins?

A

Albumin
Globulin
Fibrinogen

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17
Q

Plasma proteins with the exception of immunoglobulins, are formed in the _____.

A

liver

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18
Q

What are the function of albumin?

A
  • It helps maintain normal plasma osmotic pressure.
  • It acts as carrier molecules for free fatty acids, drugs and steroid hormones.

Note: Albumin are the most abundant plasma(protein about 60% of total).

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19
Q

What are the function of globulin?

A
  • It involves immune response to the presence of antigens.
  • It is involved in the transportation of some hormones and mineral salts (e.g thyroglobulin carries the hormones throxine and transferrin carries the mineral iron).
  • Inhibition of some proteolytic enzymes(e.g macroglobulin inhibits trypsin activity)
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20
Q

What are clotting factors?

A

They are substances essential for coagulation of blood.

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21
Q

What is the function of fibrinogen?

A

It is essential for blood coagulation.

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22
Q

What is serum?

A

It is plasma from which clotting factors has been removed.

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23
Q

What are the functions of inorganic salts/electrolytes in plasma?

A
  • Muscle contraction(Calcium ion)
  • Transmission of nerve impulses(Calcium and sodium ion)
  • Maintenance of acid-base balance.
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24
Q

What are the functions of nutrients in plasma?

A

They are used by body cells for:

  • energy
  • heat
  • repair
  • replacement synthesis of other blood components and body secretions
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25
Q

Give examples of some nutrients in the blood?

A
  • Glucose
  • Fatty acids
  • Amino acids
  • Glycerol
  • Vitamins and minerals
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26
Q

What is the colour of venous blood and why is it that colour?

A

It is a darker dull red colour. Because venous blood has low level of oxygen as it has has given up much of its oxygen in tissues.

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27
Q

List two protective functions of blood?

A
  • Blood can prevent blood loss by forming clots when a blood vessel is damaged.
  • Blood can prevent infection because it contains antimicrobial proteins and white blood cells.
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28
Q

Give example of the waste products present in the blood after protein metabolism?

A 
Urea
Creatinine
Uric acid
Bilirubin
Ammonium salts
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29
Q

What are hormones?

A
  • They are chemical messengers synthesized by endocrine glands.
  • They pass directly from the endocrine cells into the blood.
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30
Q

What role does blood play concerning hormones?

A

Hormones released by endocrine glands are transported by the blood to their targets tissues and organs elsewhere in the body where they influence cellular activity.

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31
Q

What are the gases dissolved in plasma?

A

Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Nitrogen

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32
Q

Which gases are transported in combination with hemoglobin in RBCs?

A

Oxygen and Carbon dioxide

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33
Q

Most carbon dioxide is carried as ___________ dissolved in plasma.

A

bicarbonate ions

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34
Q

Name a gas present in plasma that has no physiological function?

A

Nitrogen

35
Q

List the formed elements of blood?

A

Erythrocytes(RBCs)
Leukocytes(WBCs)
Thrombocytes(Platelets)

36
Q

List some structural characteristics of RBCs?

A
  • They are biconcave disk shaped.
  • They are anucleate cells.
  • They are flexible cells.
  • They are about 7.5 μm in diameter.
  • They have no intracellular organelles.
37
Q

What is hematocrit? What is its normal value?

A

The hematocrit is the percentage of blood that is occupied by erythrocytes.

It is normally about 45%.

38
Q

Where are blood cells mainly synthesized?

A

In the red bone marrow.

39
Q

Where are lymphocytes produced?

A

In lymphoid tissue.

40
Q

In the bone marrow, where are all blood cells originate?

A

In pluripotent stem cells.

41
Q

What is the process of blood cell formation called?

A

Hematopoiesis/hemopoiesis

42
Q

Hematopoiesis occurs at which sites?

A

Embryo
Liver
Spleen
Red bone marrow

43
Q

Where does hemopoietic cells first appear before birth?

A

In the yolk sac of the two week embryo.

44
Q

After 8 weeks gestation where has the process of hemopoiesis been established?

A

In the embryonic liver.

45
Q

After 12-16 weeks gestation, which organ is the major site of blood cell formation?

A

The liver

Note: The spleen is also active in this period.

46
Q

By 20 weeks gestation(5 month) which site became an active hematopoietic site?

A

Bone marrow

47
Q

By 30 weeks gestation(7½month) which site became the major site of blood cell formation?

A

Bone marrow

48
Q

At birth, actively hemopoietic _______ occupies the entire capacity of the bones and continues for the first ________ of post neutral life.

A

RBM ; 2-3 years

49
Q

In childhood, the _____ also extends throughout the shaft of _____ bones as children have greater need for the production of blood cells.

A

RBM ; Long

50
Q

What type of cells are found in the network of the RBM?

A 
Blood formation cells
Immature blood cells
Macrophages
Fat cells
Reticular cells
51
Q

Which two type of cells are produced after hemocytoblast in the RBM?

A

Lymphoid stem cells

Myeloid stem cells

52
Q

As the blood cells mature in the RBM, how do they enter the bloodstream?

A

They migrate through the thin walls of the sinusoids.

53
Q

In which bones is red bone marrow located?

A
  • Axial skeleton
  • Pectoral and pelvic girdles.
  • Proximal epiphyses of the humerus and femur.
54
Q

What is the lifespan of RBCs in the circulation?

A

120 days

55
Q

What is the process of development of RBCs called?

A

Erythropoiesis

56
Q

How much time does erythropoiesis take?

A

7 days

57
Q

Describe the first stage in the life-cycle of RBCs?

A

Macrophages in the spleen, liver, or red bone marrow engulf and phagocytize ruptured, worn-out red blood cells.

58
Q

What is phagocytosis?

A

It is the process by which a cell uses its plasma membrane to engulf a large particle.

59
Q

Describe the second stage in the life-cycle of RBCs?

A

The globin and heme portions of hemoglobin are split apart during breakdown of RBCs.

60
Q

Describe the third stage in the life-cycle of RBCs?

A

Globin is broken down into amino acids, which can be reused for protein synthesis.

61
Q

Describe the fourth stage in the life-cycle of RBCs?

A

Iron is removed from the heme portion in the form of Fe3+, which can be toxic in the blood stream, thus it has to be transported on a special carrier called Transferrin.

62
Q

Describe the fifth stage in the life-cycle of RBCs?

A

Transferrin will transport the iron(Fe3+) in the blood until it get into the liver. Once it gets to the liver, the iron is then stored as Ferritin.

63
Q

Describe the sixth stage in the life-cycle of RBCs?

A

Once the body needs iron(Fe3+), it can then join back up with Transferrin and then can be transported to the red bone-marrow (or everywhere in the body where it is needed).

64
Q

Describe the seventh stage in the life-cycle of RBCs?

A

The Fe3+ that will be heading to the red bone marrow will combine with globin, vitamin B12 and erythropoietin so as to complete the process called erythropoiesis.

65
Q

Describe the eighth stage in the life-cycle of RBCs?

A

Erythropoiesis in red bone marrow results in the production of red blood cells, which enter the circulation.

66
Q

Describe the ninth stage in the life-cycle of RBCs?

A

The non-iron portion of heme is converted to biliverdin (a green pigment) and then into bilirubin (a yellow-orange pigment).

67
Q

Describe the tenth stage in the life-cycle of RBCs?

A

Bilirubin enters the blood and is transported to the liver.

68
Q

Describe the eleventh stage in the life-cycle of RBCs?

A

Within the liver, bilirubin is released by liver cells into bile, which passes into the small intestine and then into the large intestine.

69
Q

Describe the twelfth stage in the life-cycle of RBCs?

A

In the large intestine, bacteria convert bilirubin into urobilinogen.

70
Q

Describe the thirteenth stage in the life-cycle of RBCs?

A

Some urobilinogen that is absorbed back into the blood is then converted to a yellow pigment called urobilin and excreted in urine.

71
Q

Describe the fourteenth stage in the life-cycle of RBCs?

A

Most urobilinogen is eliminated in feces in the form of a brown pigment called stercobilin which gives feces its characteristic color.

72
Q

When does the process of erythropoiesis begins?

A

It begins when a hematopoietic stem cell descendant called a myeloid stem cell transforms into a proerythroblast (committed cell).

73
Q

What happens in the ribosome synthesis stage?(Phase 1)

A

Basophilic erythroblasts that are produced by proerythroblast creates huge number of ribosomes.

74
Q

What happens in the hemoglobin accumulation stage?(Phase 2)

A

Hemoglobin is synthesized and iron accumulates as the basophilic erythroblast transforms into a polychromatic erythroblast and then an orthochromatic erythroblast.

75
Q

When does an orthochromatic erythroblast becomes a reticulocyte?

A

After it has accumulated almost all of its hemoglobin by which it will eject most of its organelles. Additionally, its nucleus degenerates and is pinched
off, allowing the cell to collapse inward and eventually assume the biconcave shape.

76
Q

When does reticulocytes fully matures into erythrocytes?

A

Within two days of release in the bloodstream, their ribosomes are degraded by intracellular enzymes.

77
Q

Haemoglobin binds _________ to oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin.

A

reversibly

78
Q

What is the main stimulus of erythropoiesis?

A

It is hypoxia, a decrease in the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.

79
Q

What can lead to hypoxia?

A
  • Reduced numbers of red blood cells due to hemorrhage (bleeding) or excessive RBC destruction.
  • Insufficient hemoglobin per RBC (as in iron deficiency).
  • Reduced availability of oxygen, as might occur at high altitudes or during pneumonia.
80
Q

What happens when the body is in a state of hypoxia?

A

The kidneys produces a hormone called erythropoietin, which stimulates the red bone marrow to increase the rate of RBC production (that is, the rate of stem cell mitosis).

81
Q

Blood generally accounts for ____of the human body weight.

A

8%

82
Q

When is tissue perfusion attained?

A

When the blood volume and blood pressure is high enough that blood can reach all of the body’s tissues.

83
Q

List some mechanisms used to regulate blood volume and tissue perfusion?

A
  • Renal water excretion in the kidney
  • Pumping activity of the heart
  • Abilities of the arteries to constrict or dilate.
84
Q

What can lead to hypovolemic shock?

A

When blood volume becomes too low, such as from an injury, dehydration or internal bleeding.

Note: Tissue perfusion also decreases considerably.

Blood (4 decks)

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