Black Notes Flashcards
Give the Hardness Acceptability level
Soft(<50mg/L as CaCO3)
Moderately hard (50-150 mg/l as CaCO3)
Hard(150-300mg/L as CaCO3)
Very hard (>300mg/L as CaCO3)
Give the formula for unseede dilution of BOD5
BOD5=(DOi-DOf)/P
BOD5 for seeded dilution
BOD5=((Doi-Dof)-(Bi-Bf)(f))/P
P=Volume of wastewater/300ml
f=(1-p)
Elements are composed of tiny indivisible particles called atoms
John Dalton
Law of conservation of mass
Antoine Lavoiser
States that a pure compound is made up of elements in the same proportion by mass
Law of definite Proportion by Joseph Louis Proust
Who discover Cathode Ray Tube or Geissler Tube
Sir William Crookes and Heinrich Geissler)
Determined the ratio of electric charge to the mass of an electron to be -1.76x10^8 coul/gram
Joseph John Thomson
Determined the charge of an electron to be -1.60x10^-19 coul
Robert Andrews Milikan
Discovered the X-rays, which penetrated matter, darkened unexposed photographic plates and caused metals to emit unusual rays
Wilhelm Konrad Rontgen
Discovered Radioactivity in uranium
Antoine Henri Becquerel
Discovered Radioactivity in uranium and Polonium
Marya Skolodowska Curie
He made the following generalizations:
1. Most of the atom is an empty space
2.The positive charge of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus
Ernest Rutherford
The positively charged particle in the nucleus is the
Proton
Discovered neutron by bombarding a beryllium atom with alpha particles producing an electrically neutral particle having a mass slightly greater than that of a proton
James Chadwick
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
Atomic number
The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
Mass number
Are atoms that have the same atomic number but different mass number
Isotopes
The weighted average of the atomic masses of the isotopes based on their percentage abundance
Average atomic mass
Give the 4 quantum numbers
- Principal quantum number (n)
- Azimuthal/Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l)
- Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
- Spin Quantum Number (ms)
Pertains to the average distance of the electron from the nucleus in a particular orbital. It has integral values 1, 2 etc.
Principal quantum number (n)
Tells the shape of the orbital. It has a value from to n-1
Azimuthal/Angular Momentum Quantum Number
Describe the orientation of orbitals in space. Its allowable values are -l to 0 +l
Magnetic Quantum Number
Shows the spin of electrons It’s values are +1/2 (clockwise) and -1/2(counter clockwise)
Spin Quantum Number
The orbitals of an atom must be filled up in increasing energy levels
Aufbau Principle
No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of quantum numbers and an atomic orbital must contain a maximum of two electrons with opposite spins
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle by Wolfgang Pauli
The most stable arrangement of electrons in subshells is the one with more parallel spins
Hund’s Rule of Multiplicity
German chemist, arranged the elements in triads like Li-Na-K, Ca-Sr-Ba, and Cl-Br-I
Johann Wolfgang Dobreiner
English chemist, arranged the elements in atomic mass and found out that every eight element has similar properties
John Ar Newlands
A Russian chemist and German chemist arranged the elements in the periodic table according to their recurring periodic properties
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev and Julius Lothar Meyer
A young English physicist, discovered the relationship between the elements atomic number and the frequency of X-rays generated by bombarding the element with high energy electrons
Henry Gwyn-Jeffreys Mosely
The properties of the elements are functions of their atomic number
Modern periodic law
The average distance between the nucleus and the valence electrons
Atomic size (atomic radius)
The energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom in it’s ground state.
Ionization Energy
The change in energy when an electron is accepted by a gaseous atom to form an anion
Electron Affinity
The measure of the ability of an atom to attract towards itself a bonding electron
Electronegativity
Results from the amount of the nucleus and the electron of two or more atoms and usually involves two non-metals
Covalent Bond
Results from the attraction of two opposite charged particles and involves a metal and non-metal
Ionic bond
Is the amount of energy involved in the formation and breaking of a bond
Bond energy
The distance between the nuclei of the atoms forming the bond
Bond length
Pertains to single bond, double bond, triple bond and those intermediate between single and double bonds.
Bond Order
The formation of a bond is due to the overlap of two atomic orbitals
Valence bond theory
A bond is formed when electrons in the bonding molecular orbital is greater than the electrons in the non-binding molecular orbital
Molecular Orbital Theory
Reaction of an Acid and a base forming salt and water
Neutralization Reaction
Reaction which results in the formation of an insoluble product
Precipitation Reaction
A system in equilibrium when subjected to a stress will act in such a way to relieve the stress.
Le Chatelier’s Principle
The rate of disintegration of 1 gram of Ra
Curie
Basically a helium nucleus
Alpha particles
Basically an electron
Beta particle
Also known as high energy photon
Gamma ray
Who discovered positron
Carl Anderson
An antimatter emitted when the neutron to proton ratio is lower than the zone of stability
Positron
A proton is transformed to a neutron is also known as
Positron
Branch of chemistry that deals with compounds of carbon
Organic Chemistry
Organic compounds originated from living materials, either plants or animals. Such materials posses vital force and compounds that are extremely difficult to synthesize in the laboratory
Vital Force Theory
He synthesize urea in the laboratory from the inorganic compound, ammonium cyanate
Friedrich Wohler
Component of urine, and thereby ending the concept of vitalism
Urea
Atoms in an organic compound have fixed number of bonds. This combining ability is termed as
Valence
Carbon can form bonds with another carbon atom accounting for high percentage of carbon in most organic compounds. This ability of carbon is called
Catenation
Atoms are being held by electrical attraction between species of opposite charge
Dualism (Berzelius)
Atoms with high ionization energy tend to lose electrons easily while atoms with low electron affinity tend to gain electrons easily
Ionic bond
A molecule or an ion represented in two or more Lewis structures that differ only in the positions of electrons exhibit the property of resonance.
Resonance Theory
Compounds containing carbon and hydrogen
Hydrocarbons
Compounds whose carbon atoms are arranged in chains whether straight or branched
Aliphatic
Formula of Alkanes
CnH2n+2 - contains single bonds
Formula of Alkenes
CnH2n -contain double bonds
Formula of Alkynes
CnH2n-2 - contain two double bonds
Compounds whose carbon atoms are arranged in chains whether straight or branched
Aliphatic
Compounds containing carbon atoms in a ring system
Alicyclic
Alkanes arranged in the form of a closed chain
Cycloalkanes (CnH2n)
Non-conjugated Alkenes in a ring system
Cycloalkanes (CnH2n-2)
Compounds containing carbon atoms with conjugated double bonds in a ring system
Aromatic
Hydrocarbons with one or more hydrogen atom replaced by -OH group
Alcohols (R-OH) and Phenols (Ar-OH)
Hydrocarbon derivatives with two hydrocarbon groups attached to oxygen
Ethers (ROR)
Cyclic ethers in which the oxygen is included in a three-membered ring
Epoxides
Hydrocarbons with one or two alkyl groups attached to C=O
Aldehydes (RCHO) and Ketones (RCOR)
Hydrocarbons with the carboxyl group-COOH
Carboxylic Acids (RCOOH)
Carboxylic acid derivatives with the hydrogen atom replaced by an alkyl group
Ester (RCOOR)
Carboxylic acid derivatives with the hydrogen atom replaced by RC=O
Acid Anhydride
Hydrocarbons with the hydrogen atom replaced by one or more halogens
Alkyl Halides and Aryl Halides
Hydrocarbon derivatives with hydrogen atom replaced with-SH
Thiols
Hydrocarbon derivatives with general formula R-S-S-R
Disulfides
Organic derivative of NH3
Amine
Carboxylic acid derivatives with hydrogen atom replaced with-NH2
Amides
Also called paraffins
Alkanes
-saturated and sp3 hybridized carbon
Physical state at Room Temperature of Alkanes
C1-C4
C5-C17
C18-Cn
Gases
Liquids
Solids
Solubility of Alkanes
Practically insoluble in water due to non-polar character and inability to form hydrogen bonds while soluble in benzene, chloroform and carbon tetrachloride
Boiling point of alkane
Increases as length of carbon chain increases and decreases due to branching
Also called olefins
Alkenes
This rule said that the alkene formed is the one that is more alkyl substituted
Saitsev’s Rule
This rule states that “The halogen attaches to the carbon that is more alkyl substituted thus producing a higher order alkyl halide
Markovnikoff’s Rule
Addition of HBR in the presence of Organic Peroxides
Anti-Markovnikoffs
Also called acetylenes
Alkynes-sp hybridized carbon
Compounds that are planar, cyclic follows
Huckel’s rule
4n+2=π electrons, where n must be a whole number
Huckel’s Rule
Vinyl benzene is also known as
Styrene
Ortho, meta and para also used to denote
1, 2, 1,3 and 1,4
Presence of KMNO4 will always create an
Acid
Two hydroxyl groups are called
Glycols
Alcohols have higher boiling points compared to ethers True or false
True
Named as Alkanal
Aldehydes
Aldehydes and ketones are soluble in water. True or false
True
Father of chemistry
Antoine Lavoisier
Branch of chemistry that deals with the separation, identification and composition of matter
Analytical chemistry
Type of analysis that reveals the components of the sample
Qualitative Analysis (what is present)
Type of analysis the determines the amount of components present in a sample
Quantitative Analysis ( how much is present)
Deals with the measurement of the mass of a substance that is chemically related to the analyte
Gravimetric method
Measures the volume of sodium necessary to react completely with the analyte
Volumetric method
Measures the electromagnetic radiation produced by the analyte or it’s interactions with it
Spectroscopicethod
Measures the electromagnetic radiation produced by the analyte or its interactions with it
Spectroscopic Method
Measures the electrical properties of the analyte such as current, potential,resistance and amount of charge
Electroanalytic Method
Solution of known concentration
Standard solution
Process of determining the concentration of an unknown solution
Standardization
A substance of high purity used for standardization
Primary Standard
Give the constant concentration of
HCl
NaOH
H2SO4
12.1M
19.4 M
18M
The analyte reacts with the standard solution directly
Direct Titration
An excess standard solution is added and the excess is determined by the addition of another standard solution
Back Titration
The analyte is converted to a product chemically related to it and the product of such reaction is titrated with a standard solution
Replacement Titration
Reaction involving formation of ions
Ionization Reaction
Determination of Organic Nitrogen
Kjeldahl Method
Percentage Protein in the sample
f=cereals
f= meat products
f=dairy products
5.70
6.25
6.38
The presence of hydroxide, carbonate and bicarbonate in water is also referred to as
Alkalinity
It is a measure of the acid-neutralizing capacity of water
Alkalinity
M-Cresol purple can also be used to detect phenolphthalein alkalinity (P) while bromocresol green or_______for the total alkalinity(T)
Methyl orange
Direct method for Halides and Cyanides
Mohr Method
Titrant:Silver nitrate, AgNo3
Titration Reaction:Ag+Cl=>AgCl(white)
Indicator:sodium chromate, Na2CrO4
Direct method for silver-Indirect method for halide
Titrant:KSCN
Direct Titration Reaction:Ag+SCN=>AgSCN(white)
Indirect Titration reaction:Ag+Cl=>AgCl(white)
Indicator:ferric alum
Volhard method
Indicator:dichlorofluorescein, best for determination of Halides and Cyanides
Titration is carried out between pH of 4-7. Dextrin is added to prevent excessive coagulation of the AgCl precipitate
Fajans Method
What do we determined using Leibig Method?
Cyanide
Involves an increase in the oxidation state of an element
Oxidation reaction
Involves a decrease in the oxidation state
Reduction reaction
Loss of Electrons,Oxidation substance oxidized is the
Reducing Agent
Gain of Electrons, Reduction, substance reduced is the
Oxidizing Agent
The potential of a cell with the hydrogen electrode as the anode.
Electrode potential
Differentiate Electrochemical cells and galvanic or voltaic cell
Electrochemical cells have two electrodes, which are immersed in an electrolyte solution. Salt bridges are used to prevent the two
Differentiate Electrochemical cells and galvanic or voltaic cell
Electrochemical cells have two electrodes, which are immersed in an electrolyte solution. Salt bridges are used to prevent the two
Differentiate Electrochemical cells and galvanic or voltaic cell
Electrochemical cells have two electrodes, which are immersed in an electrolyte solution. Salt bridges are used to prevent the two
The absorption of radiant energy by matter can be described using
Beer’s Law.
Branch of chemistry that deals with the study of the structures and physical properties of matter with the laws of chemical interaction and the theories governing these interactions.
Physical Chemistry
A state of matter results from a mixture of neutral atoms, free electrons and charged ions, usually a fluid but due to charged particles present, it responds to and generates electromagnetic forces
Plasma
Special state of matter in which atoms in a confined gas act together like a single giant particle after being cooled cryogenically to a temperature near absolute zero.
Bose-Einstein Condensate
Kinetic molecular theory states that gases are considered to be composed of minute discrete particles called
Molecules
It states that the absolute temperature is a quantity proportional to the average kinetic energy of all molecules in a system
Kinetic Molecular Theory
(V/T)=k
Charles law (P)
Isobaric
(PV)=k
Boyle’s (T)
Isothermal
(P/T)=k
Gay-Lussac’S Law(V)
Isochoric
Vapor density method was developed by?
Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas
For an ideal gas, Z=?
Z=1
At high temperature, Z is what for all pressures
Z>1
___ between molecules results to reduction in the value of Z while__ between molecules results to increase in the Value of Z
Attraction, Repulsion
As soon as equilibrium is established between the liquid and vapor, the pressure exerted by the vapor is known as the
Saturated vapor pressure
Defined as the resistance offered by a fluid to the flow of another fluid
Viscosity
True or false
-for gases,viscosity increases with increasing temperature
-at low pressures, viscosity is affected by pressure
-True, False(not affected)
This law is applicable when the radius of the falling body is greater than the distance between the molecules of the fluid
Stoke’s Law(Falling Sphere Viscometer)
Amount of work required to increase the surface area of a liquid by one unit of area
Surface tension
Du Nouy Ring Method
The device in this method is known as___, which was developed in Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research
Tensiometer
-constituent structural units are arranged in a definite geometrical configuration characteristics of the substance
-melts sharply at a constant and definite temperature
Crystalline
-does not show a definite configurational arrangement
-not considered as true solids but highly supercooled liquids with very high viscosity
-melts gradually over a temperature interval
Amorphous
Amount of heat evolved during crystallization or solidification per mole of substance at a given temperature and pressure
Heat of Crystallization
The reverse of heat of Crystallization which is the amount of heat that must be absorbed in the transition of one mole of solid to liquid
Heat of Fusion
A study dealing with the geometry, properties and structure of crystals and crystalline substances
Crystallography
-Existence of substance in more than one modification
-examples include carbon exists as diamond or graphite, calcium carbonate as calcite or aragonite
Polymorphism
Transformation from one form to another takes place at a temperature known as transition temperature or transition point
Allotropy
State at which the net rate of all chemical reactions is zero
Chemical Equilibrium
Properties that depends on the number of solute particles and the nature of the solvent
Colligative Properties of solutions
Produces electricity as a result of the spontaneous reactions occuring inside it where the cathode has a higher potential than the anode
Galvanic cell
Non-spontaneous reaction is driven by an external source of current. They have a common electrolyte and no salt bridge
Electrolytic cell
In electrolytic cells the anode is_ and the cathode is_ while in galvanic cells the anode is_and the cathode is __
Electrolytic cell cells the anode is positive and the cathode is negative.
Galvanic cells the anode is negative and the cathode is positive
A redox reaction brought about by the passage of a direct current through a solution of an electrolyte is known as
Electrolysis
It states that the mass of a substance involved in the reaction at the electrode is proportional to the quality of electricity passed through the solution
Faraday’s Law
Used to estimate the molar enthalpy of vaporization of liquids
Trouton’s Rule
governs the temperature dependence of pressure in a two-phase, one component system
Clapeyron Equation(dP/dT)/(∆Hm/T∆Vm)
Gives the relationship between pressure and temperature for a two-phase, one component system assuming that the vapor phase is ideal and the molar volume of the condensed phase is negligible compared to that of the vapor phase
Clausius-Clapeyron Equation (dP/P)=(∆Hvap/sub/R)(dT/T^2)
