Bivariate and Trivariate Relationships

Question 1

what is covariation?

Answer 1

association/ a relationship

Question 2

what is independence when regarding variables?

Answer 2

no pattern/association

Question 3

what is a hypothesis?

Answer 3

a tentative statement about a relationship between variables

Question 4

what is a directional/one-tailed hypothesis?

Answer 4

a hypothesis that states the direction of a relationship

Question 5

what is a non-directional/two-tailed hypothesis?

Answer 5

a hypothesis that doesn’t state the direction of a relationship

Question 6

are most hypotheses directional or non-directional?

Answer 6

non-directional

Question 7

what is a positive relationship?

Answer 7

variable A increases when variable B increases and vice versa

Question 8

what is a negative relationship?

Answer 8

variable A increases when variable B decreases and vice versa

Question 9

how can you establish causation?

Answer 9

-replication
-controlling for a 3rd variable
-manipulate the IV
-use logic and reasoning

Question 10

what is induction?

Answer 10

qualitative and exploratory approach; start with specific observations to general theory

Question 11

what is deduction?

Answer 11

quantitative approach; start with general theory to specific observations

Question 12

which levels of measurement can contingency tables be used for?

Answer 12

any, but primarily…
- nominal (x) and nominal (y)
- ordinal (x) and ordinal (y)
- nominal (x) and ordinal (y)

Question 13

in a contingency table, what is the maximum amount of difference allowed between DV values?

Answer 13

it should be less than or equal to 10%

Question 14

in a contingency table, what is the maximum amount of categories a DV and IV can have?

Answer 14

DV should have less than 7 categories and IV should have less than 4 categories

Question 15

in a contingency table, what are the marginals?

Answer 15

the totals

Question 16

in a contingency table, where should the DV and IV be placed?

Answer 16

DV should be at the very left and IV should be at the very top

Question 17

what is a measure of association (correlation coefficient)?

Answer 17

a single # expressing strength and direction of a bivariate relationship

Question 18

what are characteristics of correlation coefficients?

Answer 18

• some only detect linear, others only detect non-linear
• can include direction of relationship when using minimal ordinal level
• strength is always been 0 and (-)1

Question 19

what is a symmetric coefficient?

Answer 19

unaffected by which variable is the IV; value remains the same whether X is IV and Y is DV or X is DV or Y is IV

Question 20

what is an asymmetric coefficient?

Answer 20

affected by which variable is the IV; value of coefficients are different and depend on which variable is the IV

Question 21

which level of measurement is most appropriate for correlation coefficients?

Answer 21

interval/ratio

Question 22

what is proportion reduction error (PRE)?

Answer 22

looks at how well we can predict the DV value using the IV value

Question 23

how does PRE determine strength of a relationship?

Answer 23

fewer errors in predictions means a stronger relationship

Question 24

PRE compares errors in which 2 situations?

Answer 24

1. using the IV to make predictions
2. not using the IV

Question 25

which levels of measure is lambda appropriate for?

Answer 25

- nominal (x) and nominal (y) - nominal (x) and ordinal (y) - ordinal (x) and nominal (y)

Question 26

which measure of central tendency is best to use with lambda?

Answer 26

the mode

Question 27

does lambda show direction and/or strength?

Answer 27

lambda only shows strength, not direction

Question 28

which level of measurement is most useful in lambda calculations?

Answer 28

nominal

Question 29

what is E1 in the lambda formula?

Answer 29

errors made without using the IV for prediction (found in the marginal)

Question 30

what is E2 in the lambda formula?

Answer 30

errors made using the IV for prediction

Question 31

for lambda, how do you find errors in contingency tables?

Answer 31

sum of the cells excluding the mode

Question 32

what are limitations of lambda?

Answer 32

- less useful for variables beyond nominal - doesn't show distribution among categories, thus can't detect direction of association

Question 33

what is gamma?

Answer 33

predicts the ordinal arrangement of values

Question 34

in gamma, what is the pairs concept?

Answer 34

looks at relative ranking of 2 parts of the pair on both variables

Question 35

what is the unit of analysis in gamma?

Answer 35

the pair

Question 36

what are the types of pairs?

Answer 36

concordant, discordant, tied

Question 37

what is a concordant pair?

Answer 37

in accordance with each other; two IV levels go up and down together on the DV

Question 38

what is a discordant pair?

Answer 38

not in accordance with each other; two IV levels inconsistently go up and down together on the DV

Question 39

what is a tied pair?

Answer 39

exact same values; two IV levels have the same value on one/more DV levels

Question 40

what is Ns and Nd in the gamma formula?

Answer 40

Ns is the number of concordant pairs and Nd is the number of discordant pairs

Question 41

how do you calculate Ns in gamma?

Answer 41

using raw data, multiply the cell frequency by sum of all frequencies below and to the right of it, then add all products

Question 42

how do calculate Nd in gamma?

Answer 42

using raw data, multiply the cell frequency by sum of all frequencies below and the to the eft of it then add all products

Question 43

what indicates a positive relationship in gamma?

Answer 43

if there are more concordant pairs than discordant

Question 44

what indicates a negative relationship in gamma?

Answer 44

if there are more discordant pairs than concordant

Question 45

what are the characteristics of gamma?

Answer 45

- best to use when both variables have few categories - symmetric (doesn't matter which variable is the IV) - assumes linearity - ignores pairs tied on X, Y, or both X and Y

Question 46

what is an elaboration model?

Answer 46

looks at what happens to a zero-order when you control for a 3rd variable

Question 47

what is a zero-order relationship?

Answer 47

the original bivariate relationship; without the 3rd variable

Question 48

which criteria of causation does the elaboration model determine?

Answer 48

non-spuriousness

Question 49

in an elaboration model, what the do the partial results include?

Answer 49

the 3rd variable

Question 50

what are the 4 elaboration models?

Answer 50

replication, explanation, interpretation specification

Question 51

what is the replication elaboration model?

Answer 51

partial and original order are the same; all relationships are small in zero-scale

Question 52

what is the explanation elaboration model?

Answer 52

partial relationships are 0 or less than original order, and the 3rd variable is antecedent

Question 53

what is an antecedent variable?

Answer 53

comes before the IV in time

Question 54

what is the interpretation elaboration model?

Answer 54

partial relationships are 0 or less than original order, and the 3rd variable is intervening

Question 55

what is an intervening variable?

Answer 55

comes after the IV in time

Question 56

what is the specification elaboration model?

Answer 56

one partial is the same or more than the original order and the other partial is 0 or less than the original order