Biopsychology + approaches to delete from here (paper 2) Flashcards
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Biopsychology
Nervous system definition:
p. 114
The nervous system is a network of cells and organs that controls and coordinates body functions by transmitting signals between the brain, spinal cord, and other body parts.
It includes the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
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Biopsychology
Central nervous system (CNS) definition
p. 114
The central nervous system (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord. It acts as the control center of the body, processing information and sending signals to direct actions, thoughts, and feelings, and directs responses to the sensory input.
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Book’s definition: Consists of the brain and the spinal cord and is the origin of all complex commands and decisions.
Biopsychology
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) definition:
p. 114
PNS consists of all the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord. which connects the CNS to the rest of the body - including limbs and organs.
PNS carries sensory information to the CNS,
and motor commands from the CNS to muscles and glands.
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CNS = central nervous system
Biopsychology
Somatic nervous system definition:
p. 114
A part of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that controls voluntary movements.
It transmits sensory information from the body to the brain and sends motor commands from the brain to the muscles.
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this allowing conscious control over actions like e.g walking or picking up objects
Biopsychology
Autonomic nervous system definition:
p. 114
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a part of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that controls involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate, digestion, and breathing.
operates automatically, without conscious effort, and is divided into two branches:
* the sympathetic nervous system, which prepares the body for stress or emergency (“fight or flight”)
* the parasympathetic nervous system, which helps the body relax and conserve energy (“rest and digest”).
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Biopsychology
What Are the structure and functions of the Nervous System?
p. 114
name the 2 sub-systems
The nervous system is a specialised network of cells in the human body and is our primary internal communication system. It has two main functions:
* To collect, process and respond to information in the environment.
* To co-ordinate the working of different organs and cells in the body.
It is divided into two sub-systems:
* Central nervous system (CNS)
* Peripheral nervous system (PNS).
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Biopsychology
What is the Central Nervous System (CNS) and Its Functions?
p. 114
The CNS is made up of the brain and the spinal cord.
* The brain’s outer layer, the cerebral cortex, is highly developed in humans and is what distinguishes our higher mental functions from those of animals.
The brain is divided into two hemispheres.
The spinal cord is an extension of the brain. It is responsible for reflex actions such as pulling your hand away from a hot plate.
It passes messages to and from the brain and connects nerves to the PNS.
Biopsychology
What is the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) and Its Functions?
p. 114
The PNS transmits messages, via millions of neurons (nerve cells), to and from the central nervous system. The peripheral nervous system is further sub-divided into the:
* Autonomic nervous system (ANS) governs vital functions in the body such as breathing, heart rate, digestion, sexual arousal and stress responses.
* Somatic nervous system (SNS) controls muscle movement and receives information from sensory receptors.
Biopsychology
Name the major sub-divisions of the human nervous system.
p. 114
Human Nervous System
/\ /\
Peripheral Nervous System (1/2)|Central Nervous System (1/2)
/\ /\ | /\ /\
Autonomic Somatic | Brain (1/4) Spinal Cord (1/4)
Nervous nervous
System (1/4) system (1/4)
/\ /\
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Nervous Nervous
System (1/8) System (1/8)
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Biopsychology
What is the Endocrine System and How Do Glands and Hormones Work?
p. 115
The endocrine system, working alongside the nervous system, helps regulate vital body functions, though it acts more slowly and has broader, lasting effects. Glands like the thyroid produce hormones, which are released into the bloodstream and affect any cell with a corresponding receptor.
Hormones can influence multiple organs and systems. For instance, thyroxine from the thyroid boosts heart rate and accelerates metabolism, impacting growth rates and cellular activity.
The pituitary gland, often called the “master gland” because it controls the release of hormones from other glands, is a key player in regulating this system.
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Biopsychology
How Do the Endocrine System and ANS Work Together in the Fight or Flight Response?
p. 115
The endocrine system and autonomic nervous system (ANS) work together during the fight or flight response. When a stressor is perceived—like a surprise scare or exam anxiety—the hypothalamus in the brain activates the sympathetic branch of the ANS. This shifts the body from its normal, relaxed state (parasympathetic) to a state of heightened arousal (sympathetic).
The adrenal glands then release adrenaline into the bloodstream, triggering physical changes like an increased heart rate, preparing the body for quick action. This immediate response is automatic and happens as soon as a threat is detected.
Once the threat is over, the parasympathetic system restores the body to its resting state, acting like a “brake” to counteract the effects of the sympathetic system and bring the body back to normal—this is called the “rest and digest” response.
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Biopsychology
What Did Research Find About the Link Between Stressful Life Events and Illness?
p. 115
Research found a positive correlation between major stressful life events in the previous few months and years, such as getting married, divorce, death of a loved one, etc; and illness. A researcher gave 150 participants a questionnaire asking them to list the number of major life events (from a list of 20) they had experienced in the past three years. This was compared to the number of days off work due to illness over the same period. The results showed that as the number of major life events increased, so did the number of days off work, suggesting a link between stress and physical illness.
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Biopsychology
Endocrine system definition:
p. 115
One of the body’s major information systems that instructs glands to release hormones directly into the bloodstream.
These hormones are carried towards target organs in the body.
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Biopsychology
Gland Definition:
p. 115
An organ in the body that creates and releases substances such as hormones, enzymes, or other fluids.
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In psychology, glands are important because they play a key role in regulating bodily functions through hormone secretion, which can affect behavior, mood, and physical health. e.g the thyroid, adrenal, and pituitary glands.
Biopsychology
Hormones definition
p. 115
Chemical substances produced by glands that circuate in the bloodstream and only affect target organs. They help regulate various bodily functions, including growth, metabolism, mood, and stress responses. They are produced in large quantities but disappear quickly. Their effects are very powerful.
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In psychology, hormones are crucial because they influence emotions, behavior, and mental health. Examples include adrenaline, cortisol, and serotonin.
Biopsychology
Fight or flight response definition
p. 115
The fight or flight response is the body’s automatic reaction to a perceived threat or danger. It prepares the body to either confront (fight) or escape (flight) the threat by triggering physiological aroused, such as increased heart rate, rapid breathing, and the release of stress hormones like adrenaline.
This response is controlled by the autonomic nervous system and is designed to help the body react quickly in stressful situations.
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Biopsychology
Adrenaline definition
p. 115
A hormone produced by the adrenal glands and is key to the body’s immediate stress response. It has a significant impact on the cells in the cardiovascular system, increasing heart rate, narrowing (contracting) blood vessels, and opening (dilating) air passages to help the body respond quickly to stress or danger. This hormone prepares the body for action, supporting the fight or flight response.
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Biopsychology
Biological changes associated with the Sympathetic state
p. 115
- Increases heart rate
- Increases breathing rate
- Dilates pupils
- Inhibits digestion
- Inhibits saliva production
- Contracts rectum
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Biopsychology
Biological changes associated with the Parasympathetic state
p. 115
- Decreases heart rate
- Decreases breathing rate
- Constricts pupils
- Stimulates digestion
- Stimulates saliva production
- Relaxes rectum
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Biopsychology
Neuron definition -
p. 116
A neuron is a nerve cell that transmits electrical and chemical signals throughout the body.
Neurons are the building blocks of the nervous system, allowing communication between the brain, spinal cord, and other parts of the body.
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They play a crucial role in processing information and controlling bodily functions, emotions, and behaviors.
Biopsychology
Sensory neurons definition-
p. 116
Sensory neurons are nerve cells that carry information from sensory receptors (like those in the skin, eyes, or ears) to the brain and spinal cord. They help us perceive the world around us by transmitting signals about things like touch, sight, sound, and temperature, allowing us to respond to our environment.
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book version: These carry messages from the PNS (peripheral nervous system) to the CNS. They have long dendrites and short axons.
Biopsychology
Relay neurons definition-
p. 116
Nerve cells that transmit information between sensory neurons and motor neurons within the brain and spinal cord.
They act as connectors, processing and relaying signals to coordinate responses - enabling your body to react appropriately to the stimuli.
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book version: These connect the sensory neurons to the motor or other relay neurons. They have short dendrites and short axons.
Biopsychology
Motor neurons definition-
p. 116
Nerve cells that carry signals from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands, enabling movement and bodily functions. They are responsible for initiating voluntary actions (like walking) and involuntary ones (like heartbeats or digestion).
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Book definition: These connect the CNS (central nervous system) to effectors such as muscles and glands.
They have short dendrites and long axons.
Biopsychology
What is the structure and function of neurons?
p. 116
There are 100 billion neurons (nerve cells) in the human nervous system,
80% of which are located in the brain.
By transmitting signals electrically and chemically, these neurons provide the nervous system with its primary means of communication.
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Biopsychology
recap: Name the 3 types of neurons
p. 116
- motor neurons
- sensory neurons
- relay neurons
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Biopsychology
Talk me through the structure of a neuron:
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Neurons range in size from less than a millimeter to a meter, but all share a similar structure. The cell body (soma) contains the nucleus with the cell’s genetic material.
Branch-like dendrites carry nerve impulses toward the soma, while the axon transmits them away.
The axon is coated with myelin, a fatty layer that speeds up electrical transmission. Myelin is segmented by gaps called nodes of Ranvier, which allow the impulse to “jump” between them, further speeding up transmission.
At the axon’s end, terminal buttons transmit signals across the synapse to the next neuron.
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Biopsychology
What is an electric transmission?
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When a neuron is in a resting state the inside of the cell is negatively charged compared to the outside.
When a neuron is activated by a stimulus, the inside of the cell becomes positively charged for a split second causing an action potential to occur (an electrical impulse that travels down the axon to the end of the neuron). This creates an electrical impulse that travels down the axon towards the end of the neuron.
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Biopsychology
chemical transmission- synapses
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Neurons communicate with each other within groups known as neural networks. Each neuron is separated from the next by a tiny gap called the synapse.
- Signals within neurons are transmitted electrically;
- however, signals between neurons are transmitted chemically across the synapse.
When the electrical impulse reaches the end of the neuron (the presynaptic terminal) it triggers the release of a neurotransmitter from tiny sacs called synaptic vesicles.
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Biopsychology
What is a Neurotransmitter?
p. 117
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that diffuse across the synapse to the next neuron in the chain.
Once the neurotransmitter crosses the gap, it is taken up by the postsynaptic receptor site - in other words, the dendrites of the next neuron. Here, the chemical message is converted back into an electrical impulse and the process of transmission begins again in this other neuron.
Several dozen types of neurotransmitter have been identified in the brain (as well as in the spinal cord and some glands). Each neurotransmitter has its own specific molecular structure that fits perfectly into a post-synaptic receptor site, similar to a lock and a key.
Neurotransmitters also have specialist functions. For instance, acetylcholine (ACh) is found at each point where a motor neuron meets a muscle, and upon its release, it will cause muscles to contract.
Biopsychology
Excitation and inhibition
p. 117
Neurotransmitters have either an excitatory or inhibitory effect on the neighbouring neuron. For instance, the neurotransmitter serotonin causes inhibition in the receiving neuron, resulting in the neuron becoming more negatively charged and less likely to fire.
In contrast, adrenaline (an element of the stress response which is both a hormone and a neurotransmitter) causes excitation of the post-synaptic neuron by increasing its positive charge and making it more likely to fire.
Biopsychology
Summation
p. 117
The question of whether a postsynaptic neuron does fire is decided by the process of summation. The excitatory and inhibitory influences are summed: if the net effect on the postsynaptic neuron is inhibitory then the postsynaptic neuron is less likely to fire; if the net effect is excitatory it is more likely to fire - and, momentarily, the inside of the postsynaptic neuron becomes positively charged. Once the electrical impulse is created it travels down the neuron.
Therefore, the action potential of the postsynaptic neuron is only triggered if the sum of the excitatory and inhibitory signals at any one time reaches the threshold.
Biopsychology
Synaptic transmission definition:
p. 117
The process by which neighbouring neurons communicate with each other by sending chemical messages across the gap (the synapse)
that separates them.
Biopsychology
Neurotransmitter -
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Brain chemicals released from synaptic vesicles that relay signals across the synapse from one neuron to another. Neurotransmitters can be broadly divided into those that perform an excitatory function and those that perform an inhibitory function.
Biopsychology
Excitation -
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When a neurotransmitter, such as adrenaline, increases the positive charge of the postsynaptic neuron. This increases the likelihood that the neuron will fire and pass on the electrical impulse.
Biopsychology
Inhibition -
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When a neurotransmitter, such as serotonin, increases the negative charge of the postsynaptic neuron. This decreases the likelihood that the neuron will fire and pass on the electrical impulse.
Biopsychology
Summation
117
The question of whether a postsynaptic neuron does fire is decided by the process of summation:
The excitatory and inhibitory influences are summed: if the net effect on the postsynaptic neuron is inhibitory then the postsynaptic neuron is less likely to fire; if the net effect is excitatory it is more likely to fire - and, momentarily, the inside of the postsynaptic neuron becomes positively charged. Once the electrical impulse is created it travels down the neuron.
Therefore, the action potential of the postsynaptic neuron is only triggered if the sum of the excitatory and inhibitory signals at any one time reaches the threshold.
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Psychodynamic approach
Psychodynamic approach definition -
118
A perspective that describes the different forces (dynamics), most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience.
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Psychodynamic approach
The unconscious definition-
118
The part of the mind that we are unaware of but which continues to direct much of our behaviour.
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Psychodynamic approach
Id definition-
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Entirely unconscious, the id is made up of selfish aggressive instincts that demand immediate gratification.
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Psychodynamic approach
Ego definition-
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The ‘reality check’ that balances the conflicting demands of the id and the superego.
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Psychodynamic approach
Superego definition-
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The moralistic part of our personality which represents the ideal self: how we ought to be.
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Psychodynamic approach
Defence mechanisms definition -
118
Unconscious strategies that the ego uses to manage the conflict between the id and the superego.
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Psychodynamic approach
Psychosexual stages definition -
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Five developmental stages that all children pass through. At each stage there is a different conflict, the outcome of which determines future development.
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Each stage (apart from latency) is marked by a different conflict that the child must resolve in order to progress successfully to the next stage. Any psychosexual conflict that is unresolved leads to fixation where the child becomes ‘stuck’ and carries certain behaviours and conflicts associated with that stage through to adult life.
Psychodynamic approach
The role of the unconscious -
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Freud suggested that the part of our mind that we know about and are aware of - the conscious mind - is merely the ‘tip of the iceberg’. Most of our mind is made up of the unconscious: a vast storehouse of biological drives and instincts that has a significant influence on our behaviour and personality. The unconscious also contains threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed, or locked away and forgotten. These can be accessed during dreams or through ‘slips of the tongue’ (what Freud referred to as parapraxes). An example of such a slip is calling a female teacher
‘mum’ instead of ‘miss’.
Just bubbling under the surface of our conscious mind is the preconscious which contains thoughts and memories which are not currently in conscious awareness but we can access if desired.
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Psychodynamic approach
Freud’s structure of personality
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Freud described personality as ‘tripartite’, composed of three parts:
* The id is the primitive part of our personality. It operates on the pleasure principle - the id gets what it wants. It is a seething mass of unconscious drives and instincts. Only the id is present at birth (Freud described babies as being
‘bundles of id’). Throughout life the id is entirely selfish and demands instant gratification of its needs.
- The ego works on the reality principle and is the mediator between the other two parts of the personality. The ego develops around the age of two years and its role is to reduce the conflict between the demands of the id and the superego. It manages this by employing a number of defence mechanisms.
- The superego is formed at the end of the phallic stage, around the age of five.
It is our internalised sense of right and wrong. Based on the morality principle it represents the moral standards of the child’s same-sex parent and punishes the ego for wrongdoing (through guilt).
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Psychodynamic approach
p 119
Explanatory power
Although Freud’s theory is controversial in many ways, and occasionally bizarre, it has nevertheless had a huge influence on psychology and Western contemporary thought. Alongside behaviourism, the psychodynamic approach remained the dominant force in psychology for the first half of the 20th century and has been used to explain a wide range of phenomena including personality development, abnormal behaviour, moral development and gender. The approach is also significant in drawing attention to the connection between experiences in childhood, such as our relationship with our parents, and later development (see research into the effects of early attachment patterns on adulthood and adolescence - page 92).
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Psychodynamic approach
p 119
The case study method
Freud’s theory was based on the intensive study of single individuals who were often in therapy (see the case of Little Hans - right - and other Freudian case studies such as Dora and Rat-man). Although Freud’s observations were detailed and carefully recorded, critics have suggested that it is not possible to make such universal claims about human nature based on studies of such a small number of individuals who were psychologically abnormal. Furthermore, Freud’ interpretations were highly subjective; it is unlikely, in the case of Little Hans for instance, that any other researcher would have drawn the same conclusions. In comparison with the other approaches we have come across in this chapter, Freud’s methods lack scientific rigour.
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Psychodynamic approach
p 119
Untestable concepts
The philosopher of science Karl Popper argued that the psychodynamic approach does not meet the scientific criterion of falsification, in the sense that it is not open to empirical testing (and the possibility of being disproved). Many of Freud’s concepts (such as the id and the Oedipus complex) are said to occur at an unconscious level, making them difficult, if not impossible, to test.
According to Popper this affords psychodynamic theory the status of pseudoscience (‘fake’ science) rather than real science.
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Psychodynamic approach
p 119
Practical application
Alongside the theoretical basis of the psychodynamic approach, Freud also brought to the world a new form of therapy: psychoanalysis. Employing a range of techniques designed to access the unconscious, such as hypnosis and dream analysis, psychoanalysis is the forerunner to many modern-day psychotherapies that have since been established. Although Freudian therapists have claimed success with many patients suffering from mild neuroses, psychoanalysis has been criticised as inappropriate, even harmful, for people suffering more serious mental disorders (such as schizophrenia).
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Psychodynamic approach
p 119
Psychic determinism
Freud believed, in relation to human behaviour, that there was no such thing as an
‘accident’. Even something as apparently random as a ‘slip of the tongue’ (such as mistakenly describing your partner’s new outfit as ‘fattening’ rather than ‘flattering) is driven by unconscious forces and has deep symbolic meaning (though the meaning’s pretty obvious in the case of the ‘fattening’ example!). The psychodynamic approach explains all
behaviour - even accidents - as determined by unconscious conflicts that are rooted in childhood such that any free will we may think we have is an illusion.
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Psychodynamic approach
p 119
The Oedipus complex and the case study of Little Hans In the phallic stage, Freud claimed that little boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and a murderous hatred for their rival in love - their father (the Oedipus complex. Fearing that their father will castrate them, boys repress their feelings for their mother and identify with their father, taking on his gender role and moral values.
Freud also suggested that girls of the same age experience penis envy: they desire their father - as the penis is the primary love object - and hate their mother (the Electra complex). Although Freud was less clear on the process in girls, they are thought to give up the desire for their father over time and replace this with a desire for a baby (identifying with their mother in the process).
Freud supported his concept of the Oedipus complex with his case study of Little Hans. Hans was a five-vear-old boy who developed a phobia of horses after seeing one collapse in the street. Freud suggested that Hans’ phobia was a form of displacement in which his repressed fear of his father was transferred (displaced) onto horses. Thus, horses were merely a symbolic representation of Hans’ real unconscious fear: the fear of castration experienced during the Oedipus complex.
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Humanistic psychology
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Humanistic psychology approach - An approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each person’s capacity for self-determination.
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Free will - The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces.
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Self-actualisation - The desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one’s full potential - becoming what you are capable of.
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Hierarchy of needs - A five-levelled hierarchical sequence in which basic needs (such as hunger) must be satisfied before higher psychological needs (such as esteem and self-actualisation) can be achieved.
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Self - The ideas and values that characterise ‘I’ and ‘me’ and includes perception and valuing of ‘what I am’ and
‘what I can do’.
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Congruence - The aim of Rogerian therapy; when the self-concept and ideal self are seen to broadly accord or match.
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Conditions of worth - When a parent places limits or boundaries on their love of their children; for instance, a parent saying to a child, I will only love you if…you study medicine’ or ‘if you split up with that boy’.
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Free will
All the approaches we have considered so far are determinist to some degree in their suggestion that our behaviour is entirely, or at least partly, shaped by forces over which we have no control. Even the cognitive approach, which claims we are free to choose our own thoughts, would still argue that such choice is constrained by the limits of our cognitive system. Humanistic psychology is quite different in this respect, claiming that human beings are essentially self-determining and have free will. This does not mean that people are not affected by external or internal influences but we are active agents who have the ability to determine our own development.
For this reason, humanistic psychologists such as Rogers and Maslow, reject scientific models that attempt to establish general principles of human behaviour. As active agents we are all unique, and psychology should concern itself with the study of subjective experience rather than general laws. This is often referred to as a person-centred approach in psychology.
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Self-actualisation
Every person has an innate tendency to achieve their full potential - to become the best they can possibly be. Self-actualisation represents the uppermost level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (see below). All four lower levels of the hierarchy (‘deficiency needs’) must be met before the individual can work towards self-actualisation (a ‘growth need’) and fulfil their potential. Humanistic psychologists regard personal growth as an essential part of what it is to be human. Personal growth is concerned with developing and changing as a person to become fulfilled, satisfied and goal-orientated. Not everyone will manage this, however, and there are important psychological barriers that may prevent a person from reaching their potential.
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The self, congruence and conditions of worth:
Rogers argued that for personal growth to be achieved an individual’s concept of self (the way they see themselves) must be broadly equivalent to, or have congruence with, their ideal self (the person they want to be). If too big a gap exists between the two ‘selves’ the person will experience a state of incongruence and self-actualisation will not be possible due to the negative feelings of self-worth that arise from incongruence.
In order to reduce the gap between the self-concept and the ideal self, Rogers developed client-centred therapy (see facing page) to help people cope with the problems of everyday living. Rogers claimed that many of the issues we experience as adults, such as worthlessness and low self-esteem, have their roots in childhood and can often be explained by a lack of unconditional positive regard (or lack of unconditional love) from our parents. A parent who sets boundaries or limits on their love for their child (conditions of worth) by claiming ‘I will only love you if.. is storing up psychological problems for that child in the future. Thus, Rogers saw one of his roles as an effective therapist as being able to provide his clients with the unconditional positive regard that they had failed to receive as children.
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs-
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Maslow’s main interest was in what motivates people. In order to achieve our primary goal of self-actualisation, a number of other deficiency needs must first be met. The first of these is physiological. Imagine you wanted to produce the best psychology essay you had ever written; this would be very difficult if you were hungry or tired.
Moving up the hierarchy, the next deficiency need is safety and security followed by love and belongingness and then self-esteem. A person is only able to progress through the hierarchy once the current need in the sequence has been met.
Maslow characterised life as a series of peak experiences: moments of great achievement, ecstasy or elation when all deficiency needs are satisfied. He also identified and researched a number of self-actualisers: people who, for whatever reason, were fulfilled in life and had used their abilities to the fullest.
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Humanistic psychology
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Not reductionist
Humanists reject any attempt to break up behaviour and experience into smaller components. Behaviourists explain human and animal learning in terms of simple stimulus-response connections; Freud described the whole of personality as a conflict between three things: id, ego and superego; biological psychologists reduce behaviour to its basic physiological processes and supporters of the cognitive approach see human beings as little more than information processing ‘machines’.
In contrast, humanistic psychologists advocate holism, the idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person. This approach may have more validity than its alternatives by considering meaningful human behaviour within its real-life context.
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Limited application
Unlike some of the other approaches we have come across, humanistic psychology has relatively little real-world application. It is true that Rogerian therapy has revolutionised counselling techniques (see right), and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been used to explain motivation (see below left), particularly in the workplace. However, it remains the case that the approach has had limited impact within the discipline of psychology as a whole. This may in part be due to humanistic psychology lacking a sound evidence-base (see below) and also due to the fact that the approach has been described, not as a comprehensive theory, but as a loose set of rather abstract concepts.
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Positive approach
Humanistic psychologists have been praised for ‘bringing the person back into psychology’ and promoting a positive image of the human condition. Freud saw human beings as slaves to their past and claimed all of us existed somewhere between ‘common unhappiness and absolute despair’. Humanistic psychology offers a refreshing and optimistic alternative; it sees all people as basically good, free to work towards the achievement of their potential and in control of their lives.
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Untestable concepts
Humanistic psychology does include a number of vague ideas that are abstract and difficult to test. Concepts such as ‘self-actualisation’ and ‘congruence’ may be useful therapeutic tools but would prove problematic to assess under experimental conditions. Rogers did attempt to introduce more rigour into his work by developing the Q-sort - an objective measure of progress in therapy. Nevertheless, as would be expected of an approach that describes itself as anti-scientific, humanistic psychology is short on empirical evidence to support its claims.
What would a behaviourist’s view of humanistic psychology be?
Behaviourists emphasise the focus should be on observable behaviour whereas humanistic psychologists focus on a person’s inner subjective world which is not observable or open to public scrutiny.
Behaviourists favour scientific laboratory experiments using animals, as the results from these studies can be generalised to humans. Humanistic psychologists would not agree with the study of animals as they see animals and humans as qualitatively different.
Behaviourists see behaviour as determined by the environment whereas humanistic psychologists suggest that people have free will to make their own decisions and choices.
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Cultural bias
Many of the ideas that are central to humanistic psychology, such as individual freedom, autonomy and personal growth, would be much more readily associated with individualist cultures in the Western world such as the United States. Collectivist cultures such as India, which emphasise the needs of the group, community and interdependence, may not identify so easily with the ideals and values of humanistic psychology. Therefore, it is possible that this approach would not travel well and is a product of the cultural context within which it was developed.
Look back at the other approaches in this chapter. Is there evidence of culture bias in any of the theories or ideas suggested?
All the approaches considered in this chapter make universal claims about human behaviour, whether these claims come from a behaviourist, biological, psychodynamic, humanistic or cognitive perspective. To what extent, though, are these claims universal or culturally specific?
Most psychological approaches were developed in the US and in Europe (what some commentators have referred to as the ‘first world’ of psychology) and it is assumed that the concepts, ideas and theories associated with these approaches can be generalised to other societies and cultures that have less of a tradition of academic psychology. But can they?
It may be that psychological approaches developed in the West reflect Western ideals and understanding only. The experimental method, for instance (such a cornerstone of learning and cognitive approaches particularly), may be completely alien to some cultures. The study of the ‘mind’, or indeed the existence of the mind (assumed to be an unquestioned fact within psychodynamic and cognitive psychology) may not reflect the everyday experience or understanding of some cultures. Psychological approaches, and indeed the discipline of psychology itself, may be in danger of imposing culturally-specific Western understanding of the world, around the world, without full justification.
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comparison of approaches
views on developement
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In terms of child development, the psychodynamic approach presents the most coherent theory of development, tying its concepts and processes to specific (psychosexual) stages that are determined by age. That said, Freud saw very little further development once the child enters the genital stage in the teen years.
Stage theories within the cognitive approach have contributed to our understanding of child development. For example, as part of their intellectual development, children form increasingly complex concepts (schema) as they get older.
Maturation is an important principle within the biological approach whereby genetically determined changes in a child’s physiological status influence psychological and behavioural characteristics.
Humanistic psychologists see the development of the self as ongoing throughout life; a child’s relationship with its parents is seen as a key determinant of psychological health.
Finally, the behaviourist approach and social learning theory do not offer coherent stage theories of development but instead see the processes that underpin learning as continuous, occurring at any age.
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comparison of approaches
Nature versus nurture
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Nature versus nurture
The debate about whether human behaviour is more influenced by inherited biological factors (nature) or by the environment and experience (nurture) has a long history in psychology. The biological approach and the two learning approaches are furthest apart in this respect. Behaviourists characterised babies as ‘blank slates’ at birth and suggest that all behaviour comes about through learned associations, reinforcement contingencies or, in the case of social learning theory, observation and imitation. In contrast, the biological approach argues from a position that ‘anatomy is destiny’ and behaviour is the result of a genetic blueprint that we inherit from our parents.
Other approaches are less easy to categorise. Although Freud thought that much of our behaviour was driven by biological drives and instincts, he also saw relationships with parents as playing a fundamental role in future development. Similarly, humanistic psychologists regard parents, friends and wider society as having a critical impact on the person’s self-concept. Finally, although cognitive psychologists would recognise that many of our information processing abilities and schema are innate, they would also point to the fact that these are constantly refined through experience.
comparison of approaches
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Reductionism refers to the belief that human behaviour can be most effectively explained by breaking it down into constituent parts. The opposing view is holism, that phenomena are best understood by looking at the interplay and interaction of many different factors.
Behaviourism is reductionist in the sense that it breaks up complex behaviour into stimulus-response units for ease of testing in the lab. Also reductionist is the biological approach in the way that it explains human behaviour and psychological states at the level of the gene or neuron. The psychodynamic approach reduces much of our behaviour to the influence of sexual drives and biological instincts, although Freud’s argument that personality is a dynamic interaction between the three parts of the personality is often viewed as a more holistic explanation. The cognitive approach has been accused of machine reductionism by presenting people as information processing systems and ignoring the influence of emotion on behaviour. Like behaviourists, social learning theorists reduce complex learning to a handful of key processes (imitation, modelling, etc.) though they do at least place emphasis on cognitive factors that mediate learning, and how these interact with external influences.
Finally, and quite distinct from other approaches, is humanistic psychology, which formulates a holistic approach to understanding human behaviour. This involves investigating all aspects of the individual, including the effects of interaction with others and wider society.
comparison of approaches
Determinism
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Determinism is often confused with reductionism but is quite distinct from it - though many determinist explanations are also reductionist. Determinism proposes that all behaviour has an internal or external cause and is thus predictable.
As we have seen, the behaviourist approach sees all behaviour as environmentally determined by external influences that we are unable to control. The biological approach advocates a form of genetic determinism in its assumption that much of our behaviour is directed by innate influences. Psychic determinism is a key feature of the psychodynamic approach insofar as we cannot know the unconscious forces that drive our behaviour, and that these are simply rationalised by our conscious minds.
The positions described above are known as hard determinism; the next two approaches take a ‘softer’ view. The cognitive approach suggests that we are the
‘choosers’ of our own thoughts and behaviours, yet these choices can only operate within the limits of what we know and have experienced. Social learning theorists, like Bandura, put forward the notion of reciprocal determinism - the idea that as well as being influenced by our environment, we also exert some influence upon it through the behaviours we choose to perform. Only humanistic psychology stands alone in its assertion that human beings have free will and operate as active agents who determine their own development.
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Explanation and treatment of abnormal/atypical behaviour
The behaviourist model sees abnormality as arising from maladaptive or faulty learning in the sense that inappropriate or destructive patterns of behaviour have been reinforced. Behaviour therapies, such as systematic desensitisation, which take a symptom-based approach have been applied successfully to the treatment of phobias.
Social learning theory has had relatively little application to treatment, but the principles of modelling and observational learning have been used to explain how negative behaviours such as aggression may be learned through the influence of dysfunctional role models.
Freud saw anxiety disorders as emerging from unconscious conflict, childhood trauma and the overuse of defence mechanisms. Psychoanalysis has had some success as a therapy but it is not appropriate for everyone because it requires a considerable input from the patient in terms of time and also ability to talk about and reflect on emotions.
Much more effective and applicable is cognitive therapy (especially when combined with behaviour therapy as CBT) in the treatment, for example, of depression. It aims to identify and eradicate faulty thinking which is assumed to be the root cause of maladaptive behaviour.
Also effective is humanistic therapy (or counselling) based on Rogers’ philosophy that closing the gap between the self-concept and the ideal self will stimulate personal growth.
Finally, the biological approach, many would claim, has revolutionised the treatment of mental disorders through the development of drug therapy which regulates chemical imbalances in the brain.
comparison of approaches
Idiographic and nomothetic approaches
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