Approches in psychology (Paper 2) Flashcards
Psychology definition:
Page 104
The scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially functions affecting behaviour in a given context.
A01
Science definition:
Page 104
A means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigations. The aim is to understand, explain, predict, and sometimes influence behavior and mental processes (general laws).
A01
Introspection definition:
Page 104
Introspection in psychology is the process of examining and reflecting on one’s own thoughts, feelings, and mental experiences.
A01
The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations.
Who is Wundt, and what was his objective (aim)?
Page 104
Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychology lab to study human consciousness,
The objective was to document and describe the nature of human consciousness known as introspection. He and his team recorded their own conscious thoughts to break them down into basic elements, aiming to uncover and isolate the structure of consciousness— called structuralism.
A01
What was Wundt’s controlled methods/conditions for Introspection?
Page 104
A01 + A03
All introspections were recorded under strictly controlled conditions using the same stimulus every time (such as a ticking metronome).
The same instructions were issued to all Pp’s, and this allowed procedures to be replicated every time.
His work was significant as it marked the separation of modern scientific psychology, from its broader philosophical roots.
A01
This early attempt to investigate the mind might be regarded by many as naive, but some of the methods and techniques Wundt and his co-workers used would nevertheless be recognised as ‘scientific’ today. (A03)
Who critisised Wundt’s Introspection methods?
Page 105
John B. Watson (1913) criticized introspection for producing subjective, inconsistent data that made generalization difficult. He argued that psychology should focus only on observable and measurable behaviors, not private mental processes.
A03
Thus, the behaviourist approach was born.
How did Watson and Skinner influence psychology, and how has the field evolved since their time?
Page 105
Watson (1939) and Skinner (1953) introduced the scientific methods of the natural sciences to psychology, focusing on learning processes through controlled lab experiments.
Behaviorism dominated for 50 years, especially after the cognitive revolution of the 1960s, studying mental processes became even more a key area of research, despite the ‘private’ nature of these processes cognitive psychologists made inferences using lab data.
Today, The biological approach use experimental methods and advanced technologies like MRI and EEG to study brain activity and mental processes.
So while the scientific method remains central to psychology, its application has evolved significantly over time.
A03
Psychology’s early philosophical roots
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
Page 104
A French philosopher, suggested that the mind and body are independent from each other.
- a philosophical stance that came to be known as Cartesian dualism.
(Since challenged, though it suggested that the mind could be an object of study in its own right.)
A01
Descartes demonstrated his own existence with the famous quote ‘I think therefore I am’.
Psychology’s early philosophical roots
John Locke (1632-1704)
Page 104
Locke proposed empiricism,
The idea that all experience can be obtained through the senses, and that human beings inherit neither knowledge nor instincts.
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This view would later form the basis of the behaviourist approach. That the world can be understood by investigating external events — that are observable and can be measured.
Psychology’s early philosophical roots
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
Page 104
Darwin’s evolutionary theory - (survival of the fittest) suggests that behaviors evolve over generations. Individuals with adaptive traits, survive and reproduce .
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in psychology, the role of adaptive behaviors, is central to the biological approach.
Origins of psychology
What was psychology understood as in the 17th century - 19th century?
Page 104
experimental philosophy
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Origins of psychology- 1879
Page 104
Wilhelm Wundt opens the first experimental psychology lab in Germany.
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Origins of psychology- 1900’s
Page 104
Sigmund Freud publishes The interpretation of dreams, and the psychodynamic approach is established.
Freud emphasised the influence of the unconscious mind on behaviour, alongside development of his person-centred therapy: psychoanalysis (e.g dream anylsis therapy).
He argued that physical problems could be explained in terms of conflicts within the mind.
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Origins of psychology- 1913
Page 105
John B. Watson’s writes ‘Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It’ and B.F. Skinner’s work solidified the behaviorist approach.
For the next fifty years, the psychodynamic and behaviorist approaches are the dominant perspectives in psychology.
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Origins of psychology- 1950s
Page 105
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow develop the humanistic approach - the so-called ‘third force in psychology, rejecting the views favoured by behaviourism and the psychodynamic approach.
Humanistic psychologists emphasise the importance of self-determination and free will.
A01
behaviourism and the psychodynamic approach: That human behaviour was not determined by the individual.
Origins of psychology- 1960s
Page 105
The cognitive revolution:
Came with the introduction of the digital computer, a metaphor for the operations of the human mind.
The cognitive approach reintroduces the study of mental processes to psychology but in a much more scientific way than
Wundt’s earlier investigations.
Also around the time of the cognitive revolution,
Albert Bandura proposes the social learning theory. This approach draws attention to the role of cognitive factors in learning, (providing a bridge between the newly established cognitive approach and traditional behaviourism).
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Origins of psychology- 1980s onwards
Page 105
The biological approach begins to establish itself as the
dominant scientific perspective in psychology.
This is due to advances in technology that have led to increased understanding of the brain and the biological processes.
A)1
Origins of psychology- Near the end of the 20th century
Page 105
Cognitive neuroscience emerges as a distinct discipline bringing together the cognitive and biological approaches.
Cognitive neuroscience is built on the earlier computer models and investigates how biological structures influence mental states.
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Behaviourist approach definition:
Page 106
A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning.
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Classical conditioning definition:
Page 106
Learning by association,
Occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired:
an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), which naturally triggers a response, and a neutral stimulus.
Over time, the neutral stimulus alone starts to trigger the same response that was originally caused by the unconditioned stimulus
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Operant conditioning definition:
Page 106
A form of learning, in which behavior is influenced and reinforced by its consequences:
Possible consequences of behaviour include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment.
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Reinforcement definition:
Page 106
A consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated.
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Can be positive or negative.
What were the assumptions made in the behaviourist approach?
Page 106
They were only interested in studying behaviour that can be observed and measured - not concerned with investigating mental processes of the mind.
Early behaviourists such as John B. Watson (1913) rejected introspection as it involved too many concepts that were vague and difficult to measure.
As a result, behaviourists tried to maintain more control and objectivity within their research and relied on lab experiments as the best way to achieve this.
Following Darwin, behaviourists suggested that the basic processes that govern learning are the same in all species.
This meant that in behaviourist research, animals could replace humans as experimental subjects.
Behaviourists identified two important forms of learning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
A01
What is classical conditioning?
Page 106
Procedure + findings ( Also, who came up with it?)
Classical conditioning is learning through association and was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov.
Procedure:
He revealed that dogs could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell if that sound was repeatedly presented at the same time as they were given food.
Gradually, Pavlov’s dogs learned to associate the sound of the bell (a stimulus) with the food (another stimulus) and would produce the salivation response every time they heard the sound.
Findings:
Thus, Pavlov was able to show how a neutral stimulus, in this case a bell, can become a conditioned response through association.
A01
What is Operant conditioning?
Page 106
Procedure + findings (Also who came up with it?)
Operant conditioning - Skinner’s research
BF Skinner (1953) suggested that learning is an active process whereby humans and animals operate on their environment.
In operant conditioning there are 3 types of consequences of behaviour:
- Positive reinforcement
- Negative reinforcement
- Punishment
Positive and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated.
Punishment decreases the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated.
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Operant conditioning
What are the 3 types of concequences for behaviour?
Page 106
- Positive reinforcement is receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed; e.g, praise from a teacher for answering a question correctly in class.
- Negative reinforcement
- Occurs when an animal (or human) avoids something unpleasant. E.g, When a student hands in an essay so as not to be told off, the avoidance of something unpleasant is the negative reinforcement.
- Similarly, a rat may learn through negative reinforcement that pressing a lever leads to avoidance of an electric shock.
- Punishment is an unpleasant consequence of behaviour, for example being shouted at by the teacher for talking during a lesson. (Finding a way to avoid that would be negative reinforcement.)
A01
The Skinner box
Page 106 (A02)
Skinner conducted experiments with rats, and sometimes pigeons, in specially designed cages called Skinner Boxes.
Every time the rat activated a lever (or in the case of a pigeon pecked a disc) within the box it was rewarded with a food pellet.
From then on the animal would continue to perform the behaviour.
Skinner also showed how rats and pigeons could be conditioned to perform the same behaviour to avoid an unpleasant stimulus, e.g an electric shock.
A02
What gave behaviourism a larger credibility/status?
Page 107
Able to bring the language and methods of the natural sciences into psychology by focusing on observable behaviour within highly controlled lab settings.
By emphasising the importance of scientific processes such as objectivity and replication, behaviourism was influential in the development of psychology as a scientific discipline, giving it greater credibility and status.
A03
What are the real life applications of Classical Conditioning?
Page 107
In institutions, (prisons and psychiatric wards). Rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens that can then be exchanged for privileges has come from classical conditioning research.
Or how classical conditioning has been applied to the treatment of phobias (page 144). Which has the advantage of requiring less effort from a patient because the patient doesn’t have to think about their problem (e.g ‘talking therapies”).
(such therapies are also suitable for patients who lack insight.)
A03
The behaviourist Approach
What is a mechanist view of behaviour?
Page 107
EDIT
From a behaviourist perspective,
animals (including humans) are seen as machine-like responders to the environment, with little to no conscious insight into their behaviour.
These processes, which mediate between stimulus and response, suggest that people may play a much more active role in their own learning.
This means that learning theory may apply less to human than to animal behavour.
A03
Other approaches in psychology, such as the social learning theory and the cognitive approach, have emphasised the importance of mental events during learning.
Extra Evaluation
What did skinner suggest influences behaviour?
Page 107
The behaviourist approach: sees all behaviour as determined by past experiences that have been conditioned.
Skinner suggested that everything we do is the sum total of our reinforcement history. (positive, negative, punishment..)
This ignores any possible influence that free will may have on behaviour
He saw free will as simply an illusion. When something happens we impose a sense of having made the decision but, our history of past conditioning determined the outcome.
A03
Extra Evaluation- Negative
What are the ethical and Practical issues involved with The Skinners Box?
Page 107
Although The Skinner Box maintained a high degree of control over their experimental ‘subjects’, the conduct was critised as the animals involved were exposed to stressful conditions, which may also have affected how they reacted to the experimental situation.
A03
Social learning theory
Social learning theory - A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors.
edit
Imitation definition
Page 108
Copying the behaviour of others.
A01
Identification definition-
Page 108
When someone associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like them.
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Modelling definition-
Page 108
From the observer’s perspective (the one that wants to be like the role model) : Modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model.
From the role model’s perspective: precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated (copied) by the observer.
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Vicarious reinforcement definition -
Page 108
Not directly experienced but occurs when observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour.
A01
(A key factor in imitation)
Mediational processes definition -
Page 108
cognitive factors, (such as thought processes, i.e thinking), that influence learning.
These processes occur between the stimulus and the response.
A01
What is the social learning theory assumptions?
Page 108
Albert Bandura agreed with the behaviourists idea that we learn from what happens around us.
But he also said we learn by watching (observing) other people and copying (imitating) what they do- within a social context (i.e social learning).
So, we don’t just learn from our own experiences, but also from seeing others actions and following it.
A01
SLT suggested that learning occurs directly, through classical (associate things with certain feelings) and operant conditioning (learn by getting rewards or punishments for our actions ) , but also indirectly (learn by watching others)
Expand on Vicarious reinforcement, what it is?
Page 108
Indirect learning takes place (a person watches others and sees what they do). The person might copy the behavior (imitation), but usually only if they see that the person is being rewarded (not punished) for it. This is called vicarious reinforcement.
Thus, the learner observes a behaviour but most importantly observes the consequences of a behaviour.
A01
The role of mediational processes:
Page 108
SLT is often described as the ‘bridge’ between traditional learning theory (Page 106-107) and the cognitive approach (Page 109).
Because it focuses on how cognitive (mental) factors are involved in learning.
…………………
These mental factors mediate (i.e intervene) in the learning process to decide if we’ll learn a new behavior.
Four mental or mediational processes in learning were identified by Bandura:
- Attention - the extent to which we notice certain behaviours.
- Retention - how well the behaviour is remembered.
- Motor reproduction - the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour.
- Motivation - the will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished.
(The first two of these relate to the learning of behaviour and the last two to the performance of behaviour.)
A01
(Unlike traditional behaviourism,) the learning and performance of behaviour need not occur together. Observed behaviours may be stored by the observer and reproduced at a later time.
Expand on identification:
Page 108
People (especially children) are much more likely to imitate the behaviour of people with whom they identify with, called role models. This process is called modelling.
A person becomes a role model if they are seen to possess similar characteristics to the observer and/or are attractive and have high status.
Role models don’t have to be physically around us, which is important because it shows us how the media can influence our behavior.
A01
e.g copying some traits of StrayKids Capu.
Social learning theory- evaluation
What is the importance of cognitive factors in learning?
Page 109
Classical and operant conditioning alone don’t fully explain how we learn. Humans (and some animals) can observe others and store information about their behavior, making their own judgements about whether it is appropriate to perform these certain actions.
As Bandura observed: Learning would be very slow and risky if people only learned from their own actions.
By watching others, we learn how new behaviors are done, and later, this stored knowledge helps guide our actions.
As such, SLT provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning, by recognizing the role of mediational processes (the mental steps we go through when observing and deciding what to do).
A03
‘Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. From observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide to action’ (Bandura 1977).
negative evaluation
Why is Bandura’s heavy reliance on lab studies for his Bobo doll experiment seen as a negative?
Page 109
Many of Bandura’s ideas were developed through observation of young children’s behaviour in lab settings.
Lab studies are often criticised for their contrived (artificial) nature where participants may respond to demand characteristics. It has been suggested, in relation to the Bobo doll research that, because the main purpose of the doll is to strike it, the children were simply behaving in a way that they thought was expected.
Thus the research may tell us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life.
A03
Social learning theory- negative evaluation
How did Bandura underestimate the influence of biological factors in his bobo doll experiment?
Page 109
Bandura makes little reference to the impact of biological factors on social learning.
One consistent finding in the Bobo doll experiments was that boys were often more aggressive than girls regardless of the specifics of the experimental situation.
This may be explained by hormonal factors, such as differences in levels of testosterone, a hormone that is present in greater quantities in boys than girls and which is linked to increased aggressive behaviour.
This important influence on behaviour is not accounted for in SLT.
A03
Extra evaluation- Positive
How does Bandura’s Social learning theory explain cultural differences in behaviour?
edit
Social learning theory has the advantage of being able to explain cultural differences in behaviour. Social learning principles can account for how children learn from other individuals around them, as well as through the media, and this can explain how cultural norms are transmitted through particular societies. This has proved useful in understanding a range of behaviours, such as how children come to understand their gender role.
Cross-cultural studies have found evidence of norms of gender-role behaviour that are very different from the stereotyped ideas of ‘masculinity’ and ‘femininity’ that we have in the West. Many societies and cultures recognise more than two gender roles – there are as many as five in some areas of Indonesia for instance – and evidence such as this challenges our traditional view of what it means to be a ‘man’ or ‘woman’ in society.
The biological approach would have difficulty accounting for such differences. If gender-role behaviour was a matter of biology and not social learning, it should be universal rather than culturally specific. This is because the biological processes that underpin sex and gender are broadly the same in all people, regardless of where they have been raised. Thus, cross-cultural differences in gender-role are much more likely to be the result of SLT processes such as observation, imitation and identification.
A03
Extra evaluation
Less determinist than the behaviourist approach
Page 109
edit
Bandura emphasised reciprocal determinism, in the sense that we are not merely influenced by our external environment, but we also exert an influence upon it, through the behaviours we choose to perform. This element of choice suggests that there is some free will in the way we behave.
Skinner and the behaviourists rejected the notion of free will claiming instead that all behaviour is controlled by external forces within the environment. The social learning theory position on this is less determinist partly because of the emphasis Bandura placed on mediational processes in learning. These allow us to store, plan and make judgements about when to produce particular behaviours that we have observed. Thus, Bandura drew a distinction between the learning of behaviour and the performance of it, the implication being that we play a much more active role in our own learning than behaviourism would suggest.
A03
A)2
Do children imitate what they see? talk about the Bobo doll experiment:
Page 108
(Study A) Bandura et al. (1961) recorded the behaviour of young children who watched an adult behave in an aggressive way towards a Bobo doll. The adult hit the doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it.
When these children were later observed playing with various toys, including a Bobo doll, they behaved much more aggressively towards the doll and the other toys than those who had observed a non-aggressive adult.
(Study B) Bandura and Walters (1963) showed videos to children where an adult behaved aggressively towards the Bobo doll.
One group of children saw the adult praised for their behaviour, being told ‘Well done’.
A second group saw the adult punished for their aggression towards the doll, by being told off.
The third group (The control group) saw aggression without any consequence.
A02
Question: Which aspect of SLT does study A illustrate?
Cognitive approach definition:
Page 110
How our mental processes (e.g. thoughts and perceptions) affect behaviour
A01
Internal mental processes definition:
Page 110
‘cognitive functions’ that occur within the mind, which are not directly observable but influence behavior and understanding.
Such as perception, memory, attention, and reasoning.
These involve the processing and structuring of information, creating a one-way flow from the stimulus (external event) to the response (behavior/action).
A01
Schema definition:
Page 110
A schema is a mental structure that organizes knowledge and expectations about the world. It’s built from past experiences and helps us quickly process new information by relating it to what we already know.
A01
If you have a “school schema,” you expect classrooms, teachers, and lessons—this helps you quickly understand what to expect when you enter a school setting.
Or
if you have a “restaurant schema,” you expect certain things when you go to a restaurant, like ordering food, eating, and paying the bill—this schema helps you navigate that experience without having to think about every little detail.
Inference definition:
Page 110
Inference is the process of drawing conclusions about how our mind works our mental processes) by cognitive psychologists looking at how we behave.
In other words, cognitive psychologists figure out what’s happening inside our minds by studying what we do on the outside
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Book’s definition: The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour.
Cognitive neuroscience definition:
Page 110
The study of how the brain’s biological structures and functions are connected to mental processes like thinking, memory, and perception.
A01
Example of cognitive neuroscience:
Researchers studying memory might use brain imaging techniques, like fMRI, to observe which areas of the brain are active when someone is trying to remember a list of words. This helps them understand how specific brain regions, such as the hippocampus, are involved in the process of recalling information.
What are the key assumptions of the cognitive approach?
Page 110
The cognitive approach, unlike the behaviorist approach, argues that internal mental processes can and should be studied scientifically.
This has led cognitive psychologists to explore areas of human behavior, such as memory, perception, and thinking, that behaviorists overlooked.
These mental processes cannot be directly observed, so cognitive psychologists study them indirectly, making inferences for what is going on inside people’s minds, based on their observable behavior.
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Theoretical and computer models: what are they and why are they useful?
Page 110
Cognitive psychologists use theoretical models and computer models to better understand how our internal mental processes work. (While these two models often overlap, the key difference is that theoretical models are abstract ideas, whereas computer models are actual, tangible systems. see below for a full explanation)
One important theoretical model is the information processing approach, which suggests that information moves through the cognitive system in stages: input, storage, and retrieval. This is similar to the multi-store model of memory (page 48).
The information processing approach is inspired by how computers work.
However, computer models go a step further by programming an actual computer to simulate human thinking. If the computer’s output is similar to human behavior, it suggests that the same mental processes might be happening in the human mind.
These computational models have been especially useful in developing technologies like artificial intelligence (AI) or “thinking machines.”
A01
Understanding the difference (+ a summary):
* Theoretical model: A flowchart that shows how memory might work (input -> storage -> retrieval). Its a conceptual model, not something you can physically interact with.
* Computer model: A computer program that simulates how memory works based on that theory. You can run the program, see how it behaves, and test it in real time.
So the difference lies in the real-world application: Theoretical models are abstract concepts, while computer models are tangible, working systems that bring those concepts to life in a testable form.
what innate motor schema’s are babies born with?
What is the role of the Schema?
Page 110
Recap of a Schema: Schema are ‘packages’ of ideas and information developed through experience. They act as a mental framework for the interpretation of incoming information received by the cognitive system; E.g, your schema for a chair involves the idea of something with legs you can sit on, helping you recognize and respond to it appropriately.
Babies are born with simple motor schema for innate behaviours such as sucking and grasping. E.g, the grasping schema consists of moving a hand towards an object and shaping the hand around the object in co-ordination with visual input.
As we get older, our schema become more detailed and sophisticated. Adults have developed mental representations for nearly everything from the concept of psychology to a schema for what happens in a restaurant or what a typical zombie looks like.
Schema enable us to process lots of information quickly and this is useful as a sort of mental short-cut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli.
(However, schema may also distort our interpretations of sensory information, leading to perceptual errors.)
A01
(e.g in Squid game the shooters aren’t wearing red- they are wearing Pink, but we see them as evil and dangerous so we thought they must be wearing red :0, another example would be EWT, thinking that a criminal must be wearing dark clothing so maybe susses less a person wearing white.)
How Did Cognitive Neuroscience Emerge?, Expand on some of its findings and inventions.
p. 110
Cognitive neuroscience studies how brain structures influence mental processes. Mapping brain areas to specific functions dates back to the 1860s when Paul Broca identified how damage to a part of the frontal lobe (now called Broca’s Area) impairs speech production.
Recent advances in brain imaging techniques like fMRI and PET scans have allowed more detailed observations of the brain’s role in mental processes. For instance, Tulving et al. (p. 51) used brain scans to show that episodic and semantic memory are located on opposite sides of the pre-frontal cortex. Braver et al. (1997, p. 53) found that the central executive of working memory also resides in this area.
Brain scans have also helped establish the neurological basis for mental disorders. For example, OCD may be linked to the parahippocampal gyrus (p. 150), involved in processing unpleasant emotions.
More recently, computer models are being used to “read” brain activity, leading to the development of ‘brain fingerprinting’ a mind mapping technique. This could potentially be used to detect lies by analyzing brain wave patterns in eyewitnesses, and determine such as, whether they are lying in court!
A01
Evaluation- Positive
Why are scientific and objective methods a strength of the cognitive approach?
p. 111
The cognitive approach is praised for its use of highly controlled and precise research methods, which allow researchers to make reliable inferences about cognitive processes. Lab experiments, in particular, provide objective and replicable data.
Additionally, the rise of cognitive neuroscience has bridged biology and cognitive psychology, giving the study of the mind a more credible and solid scientific foundation.
A03
Evaluation- negative
What is a limitation of the computer analogy in the cognitive approach?
p. 111
recap:If the computer’s output is similar to human behavior, it suggests that the same mental processes might be happening in the human mind
* Theoretical model: A flowchart that shows how memory might work (input -> storage -> retrieval). Its a conceptual model, not something you can physically interact with.
* Computer model: A computer program that simulates how memory works based on that theory. You can run the program, see how it behaves, and test it in real time.
While the human mind and computers share similarities (e.g., inputs, outputs, storage, and central processing), the computer analogy has faced criticism.
It is often seen as overly reductionist, as it overlooks the impact of human emotions and motivations on cognitive processes and therefore how it may affect our ability to process information. For instance, research has found that human memory may be affected by emotional factors, which the computer model fails to account for.
A03
Evaluation - negative
What is a limitation of cognitive psychology in terms of application to everyday life?
p. 111
cognitive psychologists are only able to infer mental processes from the behaviour they observe in their research.
As a consequence, cognitive psychology can seem too abstract and theoretical.
Additionally, many experimental studies use artificial stimuli (e.g., word lists in memory tests) that don’t reflect every day, real-life, memory experiments. As a result, cognitive research may lack external validity and be less applicable to everyday situations.
A03
Extra evaluation- positive
What is a strength of cognitive psychology in terms of application to everyday life?
p. 111
The cognitive approach has been widely applied to both theoretical and practical areas.
- It has played a key role in the development of artificial intelligence (AI), contributing to the creation of ‘thinking machines’ and robots that could transform various industries in the future. (Machines like IBM’s Watson can understand and respond to human language, and thus operate as an almost human ‘super-brain’, processing enormous quantities of data in a split-second. )
- In mental health, cognitive psychology has informed treatments for disorders like depression, focusing on how negative schemas distort perceptions of events and the world, with therapy aimed at challenging and reshaping these beliefs.
- In the field of eyewitness testimony(EWT), cognitive research (e.g., studies by Elizabeth Loftus) has shown how easily memory can be distorted, particularly by suggestive questioning techniques used by police. For example, using words like “smashed” instead of “collided” can affect how witnesses recall an event.
A03
Extra Evaluation
How is the cognitive approach less determinist than other approaches?
p. 111
The cognitive approach is based on soft determinism, which suggests that while our cognitive processes operate within the limits of what we know, we still have the freedom to think and choose how to respond to stimuli. This provides a more balanced, interactionist view compared to the hard determinism of other approaches, such as behaviorism, which argues that free will is an illusion. The cognitive approach acknowledges that while factors influencing our thoughts and behavior exist meaing that complete free will is also unlikely, we still have some degree of free choice, but only within the limits of our knowledge and experience.
A03
Biological approach definition:
p. 112
A perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body,( e.g genetics, hormonal systems, ect) on behavior, cognition, and emotions.
It emphasizes the role of biological factors in shaping mental (e.g thinking) and physical processes (e.g movement).
A01
Genes definition:
p. 112
Segments of DNA that make up chromosomes which codes the physical features of an organism (such as eye color and height) and psychological traits (such as intelligence and susceptibility to mental disorders). Genes are inherited from parents to offspring.
A01
plays a key role in determining an organism’s characteristics and behaviors.
Biological structure definition:
p. 112
The arrangement or organization of components (such as cells, tissues, or organs) that form an organ, system or living thing.
A01
refers to how various parts are structured and connected to perform specific functions within the body.
Neurochemistry definition:
p. 112
The study of chemicals in the brain, such as neurotransmitters and hormones, that regulate and influence psychological functions, including mood, behavior, cognition, and emotions.
A01
Genotype definition:
p. 112
The unique set of genes inherited from both parents which will determine the hereditary traits (e.g eye colour, blood type) and biological characteristics of a person (e.g blood pressure, their metabolism rate).
A01
though not all will be expressed in the phenotype (The observable physical and psychological traits of an individual e.g intellligence or one/both of the parents eye colours)
Phenotype definition:
p. 112
The characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment.
The observable physical and psychological traits of an individual, such as eye color, height, and behavior. These traits result from the interaction between an individual’s genotype (genetic makeup) and environmental influences.
A01
Book’s definition: The characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment.
Evolution definition:
p. 112
The gradual change in inherited characteristics of a biological population over successive generations, driven by processes such as natural selection, genetic mutation, ect. These changes can lead to the development of new species or the adaptation of existing species to their environment.
A01
Book’s Definition: The changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations.
Assumptions of the Biological Approach:?
p. 112
The biological approach argues that all psychological phenomena have a biological basis. To understand human behaviour, we must examine biological structures and processes, such as genes, neurochemistry, and the nervous system.
It suggests that the mind resides in the brain, meaning all thoughts, feelings, and behaviours ultimately have a physical origin. This contrasts with the cognitive approach, which views mental processes as separate from the physical brain.
A01
(refer to the Twin Studies)
What does the Biological approach believe about the Genetic Basis of Behaviour?
p. 112
A genetic basis refers to the idea that certain traits, behaviours, or characteristics are influenced or determined by a person’s genetic makeup (their DNA).
(In other words, it suggests that genes inherited from parents play a role in shaping how we think, feel, and act.)
Behavioural geneticists study whether traits like intelligence, personality, and mental disorders, ect - are inherited like physical characteristics are (e.g., height, eye colour).
Twin studies are used to determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis by comparing the concordance rates between pairs of twins; (the extent to which both twins share the same characteristic).
If identical (monozygotic) twins are found to have higher concordance rates than non-identical (dizygotic) twins - for whatever ( e.g musical ability, schizophrenia, love of romantic films) - this would suggest a genetic basis.
Because If MZ twins (who share 100% of their genes) have higher concordance rates for traits like musical ability or schizophrenia than DZ twins (who share 50% of their genes), this suggests a genetic influence.
A01
A genetic basis refers to the idea that certain traits, behaviours, or characteristics are influenced or determined by a person’s genetic makeup (their DNA).
(In other words, it suggests that genes inherited from parents play a role in shaping how we think, feel, and act.)
The Biological Approach
Genotype vs. Phenotype (Biological Approach)
PKU- A02 knowledge –>
A person’s genotype is their actual genetic make-up, while the phenotype is how those genes are expressed through physical, behavioural, and psychological traits.
Environmental factors will inevitably influence the expression of the genotype. For example, identical adult twins usually look or behave differently due to lifestyle choices, like exercise or hair dye, despite sharing the same genes.
This highlights the interaction between nature (genetics) and nurture (environment) in shaping behaviour, as seen in cases like PKU ( where phenotype can be affected by environment).
A01
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a rare genetic disorder that can be detected in babies using a heel prick test. If left unchecked, PKU causes severe learning difficulties in those who carry the genotype. If detected early enough, however, the child can be placed on a restricted diet and will develop normally without any complications. (A02)
The Biological approach
Evolution and behaviour: Talk about Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection and give examples of real life versions of people using this to their advantage.
p. 112
The theory of natural selection, proposed by Charles Darwin in the 19th centuary, explains how evolution occurs. It suggests that genetically determined behaviours which enhance survival and reproduction are more likely to be passed on to future generations. This process is similar to how farmers selectively breed animals with desirable traits:
For example, if a cow produces a high milk yield, the farmer will breed that cow so his stock of cows become progressively better milk producers. In nature, this “selection” happens naturally (not decided by no one), where advantageous traits increase an individual’s chance of survival and reproduction. If the individual survives but does not reproduce, the traits do not remain in the gene pool as it cannot then be passed on.
A01
Evaluation - Positive
Why is the Biological approach seen as perhaps reliable in its research?
p. 113
The Biological approach uses a range of highly precise scientific methods of investigation: In order to investigate the genetic and biological basis of behaviour.
These include scanning techniques, such as fMRIs and EEGs, family and twin studies, and drug trials.
With advances in technology, it is possible to accurately measure biological and neural processes in ways that are not open to bias.
This means that the biological approach is based on reliable data.
A03
Evaluation - Positive
The Biological approach has what real life applications for society?
p. 113
Increased understanding of biochemical processes in the brain has led to the development of psychoactive drugs that treat serious mental illnesses, such as depression. ( not effective for all patients, buthave revolutionised treatment for many.)
This is a strength of the biological approach because it means that sufferers are able to manage their condition and live a relatively normal life, rather than remain in hospital.
A03
Evaluation- limitation
In the Biological approch, why were there conclusions in studies Falsifiable?
p. 113
The biological approach offers explanations for mental illness in terms of the action of neurotransmitters in the brain. The evidence for this relationship comes from studies that show a particular drug reduces symptoms of a mental disorder and thus it is assumed that the neurochemical in the drug causes the disorder.
This is a bit like assuming that the cause of a headache is lack of paracetamol just because taking paracetamol is effective in relieving symptoms of a headache. Discovering an association between two factors does not mean that one is a cause.
This is a limitation because the biological approach is claiming to have discovered causes where only an association exists.
A03
Extra evaluation: Negative
How does the Determinist View of Behavior Challenge Legal Responsibility?
p. 113
The biological approach to behavior suggests that actions are governed by internal, biological factors beyond our control. This raises challenges for the legal system, where offenders are typically held responsible for their actions. If a “criminal gene” were discovered, it could complicate this principle, as defendants might claim their behavior is biologically predetermined.
For example, in 1991, Stephen Mobley used a defense based on his family’s history of behavioral disorders, arguing his actions were genetically driven. He lost the case, but the debate persists: if a criminal gene were found, should individuals with it be judged more leniently or harshly by society?
Listen to the podcast on genetics and crime:
Part 1: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fsAngrBEIZs
part 2: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=87mMON5tZF8
A03
Extra evaluation: Negative
Can We really Separate Nature and Nurture in Behavior?
p. 113
The biological approach assumes that genetic similarities between twins and family members explain behavioral similarities. yet, these individuals also share similar environments, which complicates the ability to separate nature (genetics) from nurture (environment). e.g, dizygotic (DZ) twins, who share 50% of their genes, often show higher concordance rates than ordinary siblings. This suggests environmental influences, rather than genetics, might be a significant factor.
This challenges the reliability of twin studies as evidence for inherited behavior. High concordance rates in monozygotic (MZ) twins—who share 100% of their genes—may stem from them being treated similarly by parents and society, or influenced by each other socially. These environmental factors complicate claims that behavioral similarities in twins are purely genetic. To isolate genetic influence, twins would need to be raised apart, which is unethical and too rare to draw definitive conclusions.
Overemphasizing genetics in behavior also has troubling implications. Past research, like the work of Cyril Burt and Arthur Jensen, misinterpreted genetic data to argue that certain racial groups were intellectually inferior, reinforcing racist ideas and justifying eugenics. This highlights the dangers of attributing psychological characteristics solely to genetics, as it can perpetuate harmful stereotypes and discriminatory practices.
For further exploration, listen to John Barrowman’s “The Making of Me,” which explores nature and nurture in relation to homosexuality. (I think this is taken down now?)
A03
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