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biology > biology study notes (year 11) > Flashcards

biology study notes (year 11) Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

how do stem cells differ from other cells?

A

they are unspecialised, have properties of self renewal and potency

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2
Q

what do stem cells differentiate into? and why?

A

specialised cells to form tissues and organs in multicellular organisms

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3
Q

what is the relationship between surface area and function of gaseous exchange?

A

more surface area = faster rate of diffusion

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4
Q

how does the thickness of cells affect the function of gaseous exchange?

A

thinner surface = faster rate of diffusion

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5
Q

what is the relationship between an extensive capillary system and function of gaseous exchange?

A

larger capillary system surface area = greater amount of diffusion that can occur

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6
Q

how does the structure and function of capillaries facilitate exchange of materials?

A

capillaries are thin (5 micrometers in diameter), composed of only two layers, permeable

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7
Q

what are 3 characteristics of absorptive surfaces within the digestive system and relate them to the structure and function of the villi?

A

large surface area- greater rate of diffusion of nutrients

thin- faster rate of diffusion of nutrients as there is less distance to travel

extensive capillary system- greater amount of nutrients can be absorbed into the blood

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8
Q

what are 3 digestive enzymes?

what is their role?

A

amylase -> carbohydrates
protease -> protein
lipase -> lipids

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9
Q

describe the structure and role of the active site of an enzyme

A

enzyme -> active site -> substrate

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10
Q

what 5 things affect reaction rate of enzymes? and how?

A

temp: decreases either side of optimum
pH: decreases either side of optimum
Substrate concentration: increases until saturation point
Enzyme concentration: increased until saturation point
Inhibitors: molecules that bind to enzymes

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11
Q

3 types of nitrogenous waste?
how toxic are they?
how much water do they use?
how much energy is needed?

A

ammonia (high toxicity and water usage, low energy needed)
urea (low toxicity, medium water usage, medium energy usage)
uric acid (low toxicity and water usage, high energy usage)

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12
Q

what is the function of the nephron?

what are its 6 parts?

A

function: filters urine
1. glomerulus
2. Bowmans capsule
3. proximal tubules
4. distal tubules
5. loop of hence
6. collecting tubule

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13
Q

how does glomerular filtration contribute to the removal of waste

A

glomerular filtration:

  • first step in making urine
  • kidneys use to filter excess fluid and waste products out of blood into collecting tubules of kidney
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14
Q

stomata open when guard cells …

when the stomata is open carbon dioxide … while oxygen …

A

… fill with water

… diffuses in while oxygen diffuses out

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15
Q

how does the leaf facilitate gas exchange? (using carbon dioxide)

A

carbon dioxide:

-diffuses into intercellular spaces of the leaf through the stomata.

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16
Q

what is the relationship between photosynthesis and main tissues of leaves? (4 things)

A
  • surfaces of leaf (epidermis) protect inner layer of cells
  • waxy cuticle reduces evaporation from the leaf
  • palisade mesophyll cells are closely joined, densely packed with chloroplast to help capture maximum sunlight
  • spongy mesophyll cells are below the palisade layer are round and arranged loosely with space for gas exchange
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17
Q

what is the difference between the description and direction of the xylem and phlome tissue?

A

xylem:
- complex tissue
- transports water and minerals from roots to leaves
direction: unidirectional

Phloem:

  • living tissue
  • transports sugars and organic material to the sink
    direction: bidirectional
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18
Q

what is the difference in contents of xylem and phlome?

A

xylem:

  • dead cells
  • water

Phloem:

  • living cells
  • phlome fibres, sieve tubes, companion cells sugars
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19
Q

4 factors affecting rate of transpiration and how?

A

light: inc light = inc rate of transpiration (rot)
(bc it causes stomata to open)

temp: inc temp = inc rot
(bc water mols inc kinetic energy and spread out more)

wind: inc wind = inc rot
(bc it moves saturated air from around the leaf)

humidity: dec humidity = inc rot
(bc there is steeper concentration gradient)

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20
Q

how does selective reabsorption contribute to the removal of waste?

A

selective reabsorption:

  • process that moves solutes and water out of filtrate and back into blood stream.
  • takes place in proximal convoluted tubule
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21
Q

how does secretion contribute to the removal of waste?

A

secretion:

- hydrogen ions, creatinine and drugs are removed from blood and into urine

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22
Q

how does the leaf facilitate gas exchange? (using oxygen)

A

oxygen:

- diffuses out of leaf

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23
Q

how does the leaf facilitate gas exchange? (using water vapour)

A

water vapour:

-through the plant via transpiration through stomata

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24
Q

what is the difference between infectious diseases and non-infectious diseases (are they caused by pathogens, do they spread, how?)

A

infectious diseases are caused by pathogens, they are spread from one to another. viruses, bacteria, protists and parasites

non-infectious diseases, not caused by pathogens, nutritional, environmental, genetic, autoimmune disease

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25
Q

what are prions?

A

proteins that have the same amino acid sequences as proteins in the brain, they are folded differently, they can change the structure of proteins

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26
Q

what is the structure of viruses? are they large or small molecules? what do they surround?

A

large molecules of protein around nucleic acid

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27
Q

what is bacteria? is it a prokaryote or eukaryote. does it have a nucleus or not?

A

prokaryotic cells, no nucleus

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28
Q

is fungi a eukaryote or a prokaryote heterotroph?

A

eukaryotic heterotrophs

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29
Q

are protists eukaryotes or protkaryotes?. multiple cellular or unicellular?

A

eukaryotes, unicellular

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30
Q

what are parasites

A

invasive organisms

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31
Q

what is virulence?

A

measure of pathogenicity of an organism

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32
Q

what are adherence factors?

A

when a pathogen colonises a new host it must bind to host cell surfaces

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33
Q

what aid pathogenesis?

A

adherence factors and invasion factors

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34
Q

what are invasion factors

A

facilitate bacterial invasion of host

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35
Q

what are capsules?

A

outer structure of bacterial cells

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36
Q

what are toxins?

A

poisonous substances formed during metabolism and growth of certain micro-organisms

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37
Q

what is direct contact (mode of transmission)

A

skin to skin contact

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38
Q

what is bodily fluids? (mode of transmission)

A

sweat, tears, vomit, nasal secretions

39
Q

what is food and waterborne transmission? (mode of transmission)

A

food and water can be contaminated

40
Q

what are vectors? (mode of transmission)

A

living organism that transmits pathogens from one host to another

41
Q

what immune responses do vertebrates have?

A

innate and adaptive

42
Q

why do plants not have an adaptive immune system?

A

Plants do not have an adaptive immune system due to their lack of both a circulatory system and specialized immune cells.

43
Q

examples of physical defence strategies in plants?

A
  • impenetrable barriers (waxy cuticles)

- seal off damaged tissue to prevent spread of pathogens

44
Q

examples of chemical defence strategies in plants

A
  • breach in barrier =secondary metabolites harm pathogen
  • produce chemicals, proteins and enzymes that fight pathogens
  • develop resistance to pathogens
45
Q

what is the innate immune response in vertebrates?

A
  • inflammation to attract white blood cells into tissues

- ingestion of bacteria by white blood cells (phagocytes)

46
Q

what is the process of the inflammatory response?

A
  • tissue damages
  • pathogens enter
  • damaged cells release prostaglandins
  • blood vessels near injury site dilate
47
Q

what are the 2 stages of the immune response?

A
  • humeral response (Antibody mediated immunity)

- cell mediated immunity

48
Q

describe the humeral response

A
  • production and release of antibodies into the blood and lymph
  • provides protection from bacteria before they enter the bodies cells
49
Q

describe the cell mediated response

A
  • carried out by T cells
  • provides resistance during intracellular phase of infection
  • fights parasites
50
Q

describe naturally acquired active immunity

A

occurs from surviving an infection

51
Q

describe artificially acquired active immunity

A

vaccination, injection of altered or weakened micro-organism

52
Q

describe passive immunity

A

administration of antibodies made in another organism (natural=mother, artificial=antivenom)

53
Q

what is homeostasis?

A

maintenance of relatively constance internal environment

54
Q

what is a stimulus (homeostasis)

A

detectable change, acts as signal for cells

55
Q

what is a response? (homeostasis)

A

physiological activity that returns variable to set point

56
Q

what are feed back mechanisms? (homeostasis) when does feed back occur?

A
  • homeostasis is achieved through feedback mechanisms

- occurs when response to stimulus has an effect on original stimulus

57
Q

what is negative feedback?

A
  • deviation away from ideal state
  • causes response to counteract
  • returns to set point
  • stops
58
Q

what are receptors? (homeostasis)

A

detect or receive stimuli

59
Q

what are chemoreceptors?

internal and external

A

detect chemicals

internal: oxygen, pH, ion levels
external: smell, taste (nose and mouth)

60
Q

what are thermoreceptors?

internal and external

A

detects changes in temp

internal: internal temp (hypothalamus)
external: air temp on skin

61
Q

what are mechanoreceptors?

internal and external

A

detects touch and sound

internal: pressure, vibrations, balance
external: pressure, vibrations, touch and sound

62
Q

what are photoreceptors?

internal and external

A

detects light

external: light in eyes
internal: none

63
Q

what are nocireceptors?

internal and external

A

detects intense chemical, mechanical or thermal stimulation (pain)

internal: painful pressure and tension
external: painful heat, cold, pressure and light

64
Q

effectors are either…

A

muscles (contract in response) or glands (produce secretions)

65
Q

what Is tolerance range? (homeostasis)

A

range of a conditions where enzyme can function

66
Q

what is optimum range?

A

preferred niche

67
Q

difference in soma between sensory and motor neurone

A

sensory: soma exists as bulge off to side of soon
motor: soma at dendritic end of neutron and axon and dendrites branch directly off it

68
Q

difference in dendrites between sensory and motor neurone

A

sensory: branch off axons

motor; receive signals from interneurons

69
Q

difference in axon terminals between sensory and motor neurone

A

sensory: send signals to interneurons
motor: form structure to connect to muscles and glands

70
Q

difference in nerve impulses between sensory and motor neurone

A

sensory: towards CNS
motor: away from CNS

71
Q

what are hormones?

A

chemicals that relay messages and prompt response from target cells displaying specific receptors

72
Q

how do thermoregulatory mechanisms of endotherms control heat exchange and metabolic activity (structural features)?

A

brown adipose tissue, increased number of mitochondria per cell, insulation

73
Q

how do thermoregulatory mechanisms of endotherms control heat exchange and metabolic activity (behavioural responses)?

A

kleptothermy, hibernation, aestivation and torpor

74
Q

how do thermoregulatory mechanisms of endotherms control heat exchange and metabolic activity (physiological mechanisms)?

A

vasomotor control, evaporative heat loss, counter current heat exchange, thermogenesis/metabolic activity from organs and tissues

75
Q

how do thermoregulatory mechanisms of endotherms control heat exchange and metabolic activity (homeostatic mechanisms)?

A

thyroid hormones, insulin

76
Q

what are endotherms?

A

organisms whose heat is generated internally from metabolic activity

77
Q

what are osmoconformers?

A

organisms that maintain an internal environment with its external environment

78
Q

what are osmoregulators?

A

organism that actively controls internal salt and water concentrations in the external environment

79
Q

what are xerophytes? what are their adaptations? (5)

A

plants adapted to dry conditions

  • waxy cuticle
  • reduced number of stomata onto of leaf as it to not let water evaporate
  • sunken stomata
  • reduced amount of leaves
  • cylindrical or rolled leaves and hair
80
Q

what are mesophytes?

A

plants that grown in enrolments wit medium access to water

81
Q

what are hydrophytes?

A

plants adapted to aquatic conditions

82
Q

what are halophytes? and there adaptations?

A

plants that are adapted to salty conditions

  • actively take up salt at roots to promote. uptake of water from soil by osmosis
  • similar structural adaptations to xerophytes (thick waxy cuticle, reduced leaf surface area, thick leaves, sunken stomata and epidermal hairs)
83
Q

what is the formula for population growth rate?

A

(birth + immigrants) - (deaths + emigrants)

84
Q

how do you use the Lincoln index to estimate population size in a closed population

A 
Lincoln index (N): size of populations (N) = m x n/m
M= number originally marked 
N= total number captured in the second sample 
m= number of receipted (marked individuals in the second sample
85
Q

biodiversity includes…

A

diverse species and ecosystems

86
Q

explain limiting factors to the carrying capacity (biotic and abiotic)?

A

biotic:
- inc predators
- dec food
abiotic
- drought
- fire

87
Q

define species richness

A
  • number of different species in ecological community
  • a count of species
  • does not take into account the abundance of species or relative abundance distributions
88
Q

define species evenness (relative species abundance)

A

how common or rare a species is relative to other species in a defined location

89
Q

define percentage cover

A
  • method of determining relative abundance

- based on the amount of space they take up

90
Q

define percentage frequency

A

probability that a species will be found within single quadrat

91
Q

define simpsons diversity index

A
  • takes into account the number of species present and relative abundance
  • as species richness and evenness increase, diversity increases
92
Q

define biodiversity

A

the variety of plant and animal life in a particular habitat

93
Q

define biomass

A

plant or animal material used for energy production

biology (3 decks)

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