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biology ppe Flashcards

1
Q

average size of an animal cell

A

0.01mm - 0.05mm

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2
Q

average size of a plant cell

A

0.01mm - 0.1mm

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3
Q

type of microscope used in schools

A

compound microscope

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4
Q

what two lenses do compound microscopes use

A

eyepiece

objective lens

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5
Q

how to work out magnification of microscope

A

magnification of eyepiece * magnification of objective

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6
Q

pieces of a microscope

A
  • eyepiece
  • coarse focus
  • fine focus
  • objective lens
  • stage clip
  • arm
  • stage
  • condenser
  • mirror
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7
Q

how to calculate magnification of image

A

size of image / real size of image

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8
Q

what is one micrometre

A

1 millionth of a metre

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9
Q

what is one nanommetre

A

1 billionth of a metre

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10
Q

what is the small square or circle of glass called over the slide

A

the coverslip

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11
Q

why do we need coverslips in biology

A

protects the microscope

prevents slide from drying out

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12
Q

what is important when lowering a coverslip

A

that there aren’t any air bubbles

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13
Q

risks with experiments involving microscopes

A
  • care when looking down if illumination is too bright
  • care when using microscope stains
  • care when handlings slides, coverslips and needles
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14
Q

method for looking through microscope

A
  • rotate object lens to lowest power
  • turn coarse lens so stage is close
  • place slide on centre of stage
  • adjust using fine focus
  • record an image
  • increase objective lens
  • refocus with fine focus
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15
Q

what is a low power diagram used for

A
  • a plan to show arrangement of cells

- show outline of individual cells

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16
Q

what is the highest magnification with a light microscope

A

1500x

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17
Q

resolution of a light microscope

A

0.2 nanometres

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18
Q

how are electron microscopes different from light microscopes

A

they use a beam of electrons instead of light rays

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19
Q

what are the two types of electron microscopes

A

scanning electron microscope

transmission electron microscope

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20
Q

what is an SEM

A

a large FOV so can be used to examine surface structure of specimins

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21
Q

what is a TEM

A

used to exam thin slices of cells or tissues

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22
Q

maximum magnification of electron microscope

A

1,000,000x

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23
Q

what is cytoplasm

A

jelly-like material that contains dissolved nutrients, salts and structures called organelles

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24
Q

what is cell membrane

A

structure permeable to some structures but not to others

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25
Q

what are mitochondria

A

organelles that contain enzymes for respiration

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26
Q

what is a permanent vacuole

A

filled with cell sap to help keep the cell turgid

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27
Q

whats is a chloroplast

A

contains chlorophyll, contains enzymes needed for photosynthesis

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28
Q

can animal cells have vacuoles

A

yes

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29
Q

what can cell size be measured with

A

eyepiece graticule

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30
Q

what do you use to calibrate an eyepiece graticule

A

a stage micrometer

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31
Q

what to do when eyepiece graticule is calibrated

A
  • place stage micrometer on stage of microscope
  • line up one division of graticule with fixed point on stage micrometer
  • count divisions on eyepiece graticule that correspond with a measurement on stage micrometer
  • calculate distance in micrometres of one division on eyepiece graticule
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32
Q

what is an order of magnitude

A

a number to the base ten

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33
Q

what happens when you increase a number by one order of magnitude

A

you are multiplying the number by 10

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34
Q

what are prokaryotic cells

A

bacteria cells

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35
Q

what are eukaryotic cells

A

animals plants and fungi cells

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36
Q

what type of cell division do eukaryotic cells go under

A

mitosis

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37
Q

what type of cell division do prokaryotic cells go under

A

binary fission

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38
Q

what are the cell contents of prakaryotes

A

cytoplasm and ribosomes, no mitochondria or chloroplasts

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39
Q

outer layer of prokaryotes

A

cell membrane surrounded by cell wall

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40
Q

genetic material in prokaryote

A

DNA is single molecule, found free in cyctoplasm

additional DNA found on one or more rings called plasmids

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41
Q

adaptation for sperm

A
  • head contains genetic material
  • acrosome contains enzymes so sperm can penetrate
  • midpiece contains mitochondria
  • tail allows sperm cells to swim
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42
Q

function of nerve cell

A

to send nerve impulses to brain

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43
Q

adaptation for nerve cell

A
  • long so can run to other parts in body
  • extensions and branches so can communicate with other cells, muscles and glands
  • fatty sheath insulates the cell and speeds up nerve impulse
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44
Q

adaptation for muscle cell

A
  • contain lots of mitochondria which provide energy for contraction
  • long so can contract
  • arranged in fibers that helps it run along length of muscle
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45
Q

adaptation for root hair cell

A
  • large surface area to provide contact with soil water

- thin walls so doesn’t restrict water movement

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46
Q

adaptation for xylem cels

A
  • no top and bottom walls so continuous column of water running through them
  • walls become thickened and woody so can support plant
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47
Q

adaptation for phloem cells

A
  • lots of mitochondria for active transport

- cells have very little cytoplasm for sugars to move through easily

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48
Q

order of genetic information

A

dna > chromsome > gene

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49
Q

what is a chromosome made out of

A

a single molecule of DNA

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50
Q

what does the DNA in chromosomes do when a cell is ready to divide

A

DNA copies, coils and condenses to form chromosomes seen in micrographs

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51
Q

how many chromosomes does a human body cell contain

A

46

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52
Q

what is the 23rd pair of chromsomes

A

the sex chromosomes

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53
Q

when does mitosis take place

A
  • when an organism grows

- when an organism is damaged and needs to produce new cells

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54
Q

what is the cell cycle

A
  • cell grows
  • dna synthesis, chromosomes double stranded
  • further growth and DNA is checked for errors
  • mitosis
  • cytoplasm separates
  • temporary cell resting period
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55
Q

what are the two cells called in mitosis

A

the daughter cells

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56
Q

how to estimate length of different stages of cell cycle

A

(observed number of cells at that stage / total number of cells observed) x total length of time of cell cycle

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57
Q

what happens in mitosis

A
  • cell begins to divide
  • dna replicates to form 2 copies of each chromosome
  • nucleus membrane breaks and chromosomes line up
  • one set of chromosomes pulled to each side and nucleus divides
  • cytoplasm and cell membrane divide
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58
Q

what are stem cells

A

cells that have not undergone differentiation

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59
Q

where does cell division take place in plants

A

meristem

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60
Q

where are the main meristems in a plant

A

tip of shoot and tip of root

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61
Q

what happens when stem cells in a plant divide

A
  • one cell remains meristematic

- other contributes to growth

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62
Q

what happens to older stem cells when a shoot grows

A

they become differentiated, enlarge and develop vacuoles, new cells continuously produced

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63
Q

what is a zygote

A

fertilised egg cell

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64
Q

why do farmers clone plants

A
  • quicker than allowing them to reproduce and start sowing seeds
  • save endangered species
  • disease resistance
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65
Q

what are some diseases that stem cells can help treat

A
  • type 1 diabetes
  • multiple sclerosis
  • spinal cord or brain injury
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66
Q

when are bone marrow transplants carried out

A
  • incases of blood cell cancer

- blood cells destroyed by cancer treatment

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67
Q

why do adult stem cell transplants use a patient’s own stem cells

A

genetically identical and won’t be rejected by the patient’s immune system

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68
Q

what is therapeutic cloning

A

transferring nucleus from cell of patient to an egg cell whose nucleus has been removed

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69
Q

is there any evidence that therapeutic cloned stem cells have been used to treat anyone

A

no

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70
Q

what are some clinical issues with using stem cells

A
  • cultured stem cells could be contaminated with viruses
  • difficult to find suitable stem cell donors
  • no guarantee in how successful stem cell therapies will be
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71
Q

what are some social issues with using stem cells

A
  • whether benefits outweigh objections

- most research carried out by commercial clinics so patients could be exploited

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72
Q

some examples of diffusion in cells

A
  • CO2 and O2 move in and out of cells by diffusion in leaf
  • CO2 and O2 diffuse in and out of bloodstream in alveoli
  • urea being diffused from liver to blood
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73
Q

what is a solute

A

dissolved substance in a solution

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74
Q

what is a solvent

A

liquid that the solute is dissolved in to form a solution

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75
Q

what are some factors diffusion is affected by

A
  • greater the difference in concentration, quicker the rate of diffusion
  • the higher the temperature, quicker the rate of diffusion
  • the greater the surface area of cell membrane, faster rates of diffusion
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76
Q

why would a puppy dog be more at risk of losing body heat than an adult dog

A

puppy has a larger surface area to volume ratio

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77
Q

what do large organisms have to make up for low SA:VOL ratio

A
  • mechanisms to increase surface area proportionately, like additional absorbing areas or adaptations of shape
  • transport system and keep distances to a minimum for diffusion
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78
Q

when would an organism reduce their surface area

A

if they live in harsh conditions, e.g. cacit, to reduce loss of water

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79
Q

difference between dilute and concentrate solution in terms of water molecules

A
  • dilute has high concentration of water molecules

- concentrated has low concentration of water molecules

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80
Q

how to calculate water uptake in 1 hour in potato experiment

A

change in mass x (60 minutes / period of time measured in minutes)

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81
Q

how to calculate percentage change in mass in potato experiment

A

((mass at end - mass at start)/mass at start) x 100

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82
Q

example of active transport in plants

A
  • soil contains low concentration of nitrates
  • root hair contains high concentration of nitrates
  • active transport occurs so plant can take in ions
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83
Q

example of active transport in animals

A

glucose molecules have to be moved across the gut wall into intestinal cells, from where it moves into the blood

84
Q

what is a pathogen

A

a microorganism that causes a disease

85
Q

what are the 4 main types of pathogen

A
  • viruses (HIV)
  • bacteria (salmonella)
  • fungi (athlete’s foot)
  • protists (malaria)
86
Q

what are the simple life cycle of pathogens

A
  • infect a host
  • reproduce (or replicate if it’s a virus)
  • spread from host and infect other organisms
87
Q

what are diseases caused by pathogens called

A

communicable diseases

88
Q

what diseases cannot be caught

A
  • genetic disorders
  • deficiency diseases (such as lack of Vitamin C)
  • cancer that develop incorrectly or exposure to carcinogens
89
Q

true or false: all organisms are affected by pathogens

A

true

90
Q

what are types of transmission

A
  • direct contact (sexual and non-sexual)
  • water
  • air
  • unhygienic food preparation
  • vector (any organism that can spread a disease)
91
Q

are viruses alive

A

no

92
Q

true or false: viruses will quickly die outside a host

A

false, they live for long periods of time

93
Q

how do viruses replicate

A

replicate their DNA and protein coats thousands of times which are then assembled into new virus particles

94
Q

what do viruses do after replication

A

host cell bursts and other nearby cells can be infected with virus

95
Q

can viral infections be treated by antibiotics

A

no

96
Q

what does tobacco mosaic virus do

A

infects the chloroplasts of plant leaves and changes their colour from green to yellow and mosaic pattern, leaves can crinkle

97
Q

what does tobacco mosaic virus do to a plant’s functions

A

reduces plant’s abilities to photosynthesis and grow, reduces crop yield

98
Q

is there a cure for tobacco mosaic virus

A

no

99
Q

what does HIV stand for

A

human immunodeficiency virus

100
Q

how is HIV spread

A
  • unprotected sex
  • cuts
  • using shared needles
101
Q

what does AIDS stand for

A

acquired immune deficiency syndrome

102
Q

what does HIV do initially

A

gives the sufferer mild flu-like symptoms

103
Q

what does AIDS do

A

months or years after HIV virus, becomes active and starts to attack immune system

104
Q

how is measles caught

A

through the air in tiny droplets after an infected person sneezes

105
Q

what are the symptoms of measles

A

fever and skin rash, can lead to infertility later in life

106
Q

how can measles be treated

A

with vaccines

107
Q

what are larger, bacteria or viruses

A

bacteria

108
Q

what is an example of a bacterial STD

A

gonorrhoea

109
Q

what are the symptoms of gonorrhoea

A
  • burning pain when urinating

- yellow or green discharge from an infected penis or vaginea

110
Q

what can gonorrhoea lead to

A

infertility

111
Q

how can gonorrhoea be prevented

A

abstaining from anal, oral or vaginal sex, or using a condom

112
Q

how is gonorrhoea treated

A

with antibiotics, but some scientists believe they will stop working one day

113
Q

what is an example of a bacteria from food

A

salmonella

114
Q

what does salmonella cause

A

cramps, vomiting, diarrhoea

115
Q

where is salmonella found

A

unhygienic kitchens and undercooked foods

116
Q

how is salmonella prevented

A
  • all chickens in UK vaccinated against it

- cooking food properly and hygienically

117
Q

what are protists

A

group of microorganisms that have features that belong to animals, plants and fungi

118
Q

what type of cell are protists

A

eukaryotic cells, so they have a nucleus

119
Q

example of a protist

A

Plasmodium protist

120
Q

how is malaria spread

A

mosquitoes carrying protest, they suck blood from infected person and pass to the next

121
Q

does a mosquito become ill when spreading protists

A

no, they are called vectors

122
Q

what are some symptoms of malaria

A

fever, sweats and chills, headaches, vomiting and diarrhoea

123
Q

how is malaria being treated

A
  • no vaccination, mosquito nets and insect repellent

- antimalarial drugs can treat symptoms and prevent infection

124
Q

do all fungi cause disease

A

no

125
Q

what type of cells are fungi

A

have a nucleus, so are eukaryotic

126
Q

what is an example of fungal disease on humans

A

athlete’s foot

127
Q

where is athlete’s foot usually found

A

between people’s toes

128
Q

what are symptoms of athlete’s foot

A

dry, red and flaky or whtie, wet and cracked skin

129
Q

how is athlete’s foot spread

A

often found in communal areas, transmitted by touching infected skin or surfaces

130
Q

how is athlete’s foot treated

A

antifungal medication

131
Q

example of fungal disease on plants

A

rose black spot

132
Q

what are symptoms of rose black spot

A

infects rose leaves and causes black or purple spots on leaves, rest of leaves turn yellow and drop off

133
Q

what does rose black spot do

A

reduce the plant’s ability to photosynthesise and reduces growth

134
Q

how is rose black spot transmitted

A

through air or water, direct contact by gardeners

135
Q

how is rose black spot treated

A
  • using fungicides

- removing and destroying infected leaves

136
Q

some methods to prevent spread of disease

A
  • sterilising water
  • suitable hygiene (food & personal
  • vaccination
  • contraception
137
Q

how does the skin prevent infection from pathogens

A
  • covers almost all parts of your body
  • cut or grazes immediately heal themselves
  • parts that don’t have skin have other methods (e.g. eyes have tears with enzymes)
138
Q

how does the nose prevent infection from pathogens

A
  • internal hairs act as physical barrier

- cells in nose produce mucus before they can enter lungs, when nose is blown pathogens are removed

139
Q

how do the trachea and bronchi prevent infection from pathogens

A
  • trachea have hairs called cilia, smaller than the one’s in nose
  • ciliated cells waft hair and move pathogens up from lungs to throat to be swallowed in stomach
140
Q

what cells create mucus in the airways and act as a physical barrier

A

goblet cells

141
Q

how does the stomach prevent infection from pathogens

A
  • hydrochloric acid is strong enough to kill pathogens caught in mucus or food and water
  • chemical barrier
142
Q

what happens if a pathogen passes the non-specific first line of disease

A

they will cause an infection, however body has a second line of defence called immune system

143
Q

what are the two types of white blood cells

A

phagocytes and lymphocytes

144
Q

what do phagocytes do

A

surround any pathogens and engulf them and destroys

145
Q

why are phagocytes non-specific

A

engulf all pathogens that they encounter

146
Q

what do lymphocytes do

A
  • recognise antigens on surface of pathogens
  • they detect they are foreign and produce antibodies
  • antibodies cause pathogens to stick together so phagocytes can engulf them
147
Q

what do some pathogens produce and how do lymphocytes respond

A

toxins which make you feel ill

they respond by producing antitoxins to neautralise toxins

148
Q

why are lymphocytes specific

A

antibodies and antitoxins are highly specific to antigen on pathogen

149
Q

what happens to form cancer

A

when cell division goes wrong, causes cells to grow out of control

150
Q

what are the two types of tumour

A

benign and malignant

151
Q

what are malignant tumours

A

cancerous and can break apart, move around body and start new instances of cancers through metastasis

152
Q

what are begnin tumours

A

less serious because they’re not cancerous and do not spread

153
Q

how can doctors screen for cancer

A
  • x-ray
  • blood or urine test
  • monoclonal antibodies
154
Q

how are many cancers caused by

A
  • smoking or drinking alcohol
  • infections such as HPV virus
  • Sun’s UV rays and environmental pollutants
155
Q

what are treatments for cancer

A
  • chemotherapy (using chemicals to kill cancerous cells)
  • radiotherapy (using x-rays to kill cancerous cells)
  • palliative (helps someone who has terminal cancer to die as comfortably as possible)
156
Q

what is the effect of obesity

A

blood sugar levels can’t be regulated properly (type 2 diabetes)

157
Q

what is the effect of alohol

A

liver scarring which stops removing toxins (liver cirrhosis)

158
Q

what is the effect of smoking

A

causes lung cancer and underdevelopment of unborn babies

159
Q

how do vaccinations work

A
  • inactive/ dead pathogens are introduced to the body. -antibodies and antitoxins are produced by white blood cells. pathogen is neutralised.
  • if re-infected the white blood cells recognise pathogen and produce specific antibodies which neutralise
160
Q

how does herd immunity work

A

spread of pathogens reduced by immunising large proportion, pathogen cannot physically spread from one infected person to a susceptible person

161
Q

how do antibiotics work and one example

A

cure bacterial diseases by killing bacterial pathogen

penicillin

162
Q

how do painkillers work and examples

A

treat symptoms of disease but don’t kill pathogens

aspirin & paracetamol

163
Q

advantages of antibiotics

A

greatly reduced deaths from infectious bacterial diseases

164
Q

disadvantages of antibiotics

A
  • emergence of strains resistant to antibiotics means antibiotics don’t work anymore
  • don’t destroy viral infection
165
Q

why is it difficult to develop drugs that kill viruses

A

because viruses reproduce inside cells, difficult to kill viruses without damaging body’s tissue

166
Q

how were drugs traditionally extracted and examples

A
  • plants (digitalises for heart problems, aspirin from willow trees)
  • microorganisms (penicillin comes from the penicillium mould)
167
Q

how are most new drugs extracted

A

synthesised by chemists in pharmaceutical industry

168
Q

what do new medical drugs have to be tested for

A

efficacy
toxicity
dose

169
Q

what are two parts of preclinical trial and what happens in them

A

tested on human cells and tissue (efficacy and toxicity)

tested on live animals (toxicity and dose)

170
Q

what are two parts of clinicl trials and what happens in them

A

tested on healthy volunteers (low doses given for toxicity and side effects)
tested on patients (optimum dose)

171
Q

what are some patients given in a clinical trial and why

A

a placebo so to see if the drug being trialled is actually having an effect

172
Q

what is a double blind

A

when neither the doctor or patient knows who has received the real drug to stop bias

173
Q

what do doctors do after trials

A

publish their results in a journal, work is peer reviewed by other scientists to check results are correct

174
Q

how are monoclonal antibodies made

A
  • b lymphocytes (make specific antibodies but don’t divide) combined with tumour cells (don’t make antibodies but divide) make a hybridoma cell
  • these cells are cloned
  • monoclonal antibodies are separated, purified and can be used
175
Q

what are uses of monoclonal antibodies

A
  • pregnancy tests
  • research
  • measuring and monitoring
  • treat diseases
176
Q

how do monoclonal antibodies help in pregnancy tests

A

on test stick bind to hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), causing a colour change on stick

177
Q

how do monoclonal antibodies help in research

A

bound with a fluorescent dye to identify other cells or molecules

178
Q

how do monoclonal antibodies help in measuring and monitoring

A

can bind to antigens on blood clots, cancer cells, pathogens, hormones, or other chemicals. can be used to detect: disease, HIV in blood, drugs in athletes

179
Q

how do monoclonal antibodies treat diseases

A

can treat cancer by

  • triggering immune system
  • blocking receptors on cancer cells to stop growth
  • carrying toxic substances to cancer cells, avoiding healthy ones
180
Q

how can you detect diseases on plants

A
  • stunted growth
  • spots on leaves
  • areas of decay
  • growths
  • malformed stems or leaves
  • discolouration
  • presence of pests
181
Q

how can you identify diseases on plants

A
  • reference to a gardening manual or website
  • taking infected plant to lab to identify pathogen
  • testing kits with monoclonal antibodies
182
Q

examples of ion deficiency

A
  • nitrate ions needed for protein synthesis so deficiency leads to slow growth
  • magnesium ions needed to make chlorophyll so leads to yellow leaves
183
Q

physical plant defences

A
  • cellulose cell walls
  • though waxy cuticle on leaves
  • layers of dead cells around stems (bark) which fall off
184
Q

chemical plant defefnces

A
  • antibacterial chemicals

- poisons to scare herbivores

185
Q

mechanical plant defences

A
  • thorns and hairs to deter animals
  • leaves droop or curl when touched
  • mimicry to trick animals
186
Q

what do bacteria need to reproduce

A

nutrients and suitable temperature

187
Q

1st part of aseptic technique and effect

A

petri dishes and culture must be sterilised

kills off unwanted microorganisms, use autoclave

188
Q

2nd part of aseptic technique and effect

A

inoculating loops used to transfer is sterilised
kills off unwanted microorganisms
pass through flame

189
Q

3rd part of aseptic technique and effect

A

lid of petri dish should be secured with tape and stored upside down
stops other microorganisms entering
Oxygen needs to enter to stop anaerobic bacteria growing
stop condensation falling into the agar

190
Q

4th part of aseptic technique and effect

A

in school labs cultures should be incubated at 25 degrees

prevent dangerous bacteria that could survive at body temp

191
Q

how to calculate bacteria at the end

A

bacteria at start * 2^number of divisions

192
Q

function of gall bladder

A

stores bile

193
Q

function of liver

A

makes bile, bile used to break down fats

194
Q

function of pancreas

A

makes enzymes to release into small intestine

195
Q

one adaptation of small intestine

A

network of capillaries to give large blood supply and maintain concentration gradient for quicker diffusion

196
Q

what does buiret test for

A

protein

197
Q

what does benedict’s test for

A

glucose

198
Q

what does Sudan III stain test for

A

Lipids

199
Q

order of blood circulation

A

body > vena cava > right atrium > valve > right ventricle > pulmonary artery > lungs > pulmonary vein > left atrium > valve > left ventricle > aorta > body

200
Q

ways to treat coronary heart disease

A
  • stents
  • statins
  • valve replacements
  • heart replacement
  • artificial hearts
201
Q

what are risk factors to your health

A
  • exercise
  • obesity
  • smoking
  • alcohol
  • carcinogens
202
Q

what are 4 types of leaf tissue

A
  • epidermal on surface
  • mesophyll in middle of leaf
  • xylem found in vein
  • phloem found in vein
203
Q

what is translocation

A

movement of sugars from leaves to rest of plant through the phloem

204
Q

what is transporation

A

loss of water vapour from the leaves of a plant

205
Q

factors affecting transpiration

A
  • increased air movement
  • increased temperature
  • increased light intensity
  • increased humidity

PPE (8 decks)

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