Biology Part 1 Flashcards
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1
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a fundamental concept in biology that describes the properties of cells and their importance in the structure and function of all living organisms.
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cell theory
2
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All living organisms are composed
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one or more cells
3
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the basic unit of life.
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cell
4
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All cells arise from
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pre-existing cells
5
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basic structural, functional, and biological units of all living organisms
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cell
6
Q
Types of Cells
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Prokaryotic Cells, Eukaryotic Cells
7
Q
Found in organisms like bacteria and archaea
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Prokaryotic Cells
8
Q
Lack a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
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Prokaryotic Cells
9
Q
DNA is located in a nucleoid region.
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Prokaryotic Cells
10
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Found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists.
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Eukaryotic Cells
11
Q
Have a true nucleus containing DNA.
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Eukaryotic Cells
12
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Contain membrane-bound organelles such as the mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus.
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Eukaryotic Cells
13
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Components of a Cell
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Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane), Cytoplasm, Nucleus (in eukaryotes), Organelles (in eukaryotes)
14
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Functions of Cells
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growth, energy production, response to stimuli, reproduction
15
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Cells grow and divide through processes like
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mitosis and meiosis.
16
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characterized by their simplicity compared to eukaryotic cells
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prokaryote
17
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Generally smaller than eukaryotic cells, ranging from 0.1 to 5 micrometers in diameter
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Prokaryotes
18
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do not have membrane-bound organelles like mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, or Golgi apparatus.
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Prokaryotes
19
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have a rigid cell wall that provides shape and protection.
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prokaryotes
20
Q
In bacteria, the cell wall often contains ______, a unique structural molecule.
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peptidoglycan
21
Q
Prokaryotes have ________ for protein synthesis, but these are smaller (70S) than those found in eukaryotes (80S).
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Ribosomes
22
Q
Prokaryotes reproduce asexually through a process called ________, where the cell divides into two identical daughter cells.
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binary fission
23
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prokaryotes often have small, circular DNA molecules called _____, which can carry genes for antibiotic resistance and other traits.
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plasmids
24
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Types of Prokaryotes
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Bacteria, Archaea
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Structure of a Prokaryotic Cell
cell membrane, cell wall, capsule, flagella, pili, cytoplasm, ribosomes
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Regulates the passage of substances in and out of the cell.
Cell Membrane
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Provides structural support and protection.
Cell Wall
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(in some): An outer protective layer that helps evade the immune system and adhere to surfaces.
Capsule
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Used for movement. (cell)
flagella
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Hair-like structures for attachment and transfer of genetic material during conjugation.
pili
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Contains enzymes, nutrients, and the nucleoid.
cytoplasm
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Sites of protein synthesis.
ribosomes
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more complex organisms with cells that have a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
eukaryote
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Houses DNA, enclosed by a nuclear membrane.
nucleus
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controls substance exchange and cell communication
cell membrane
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contains a cmplex system of organelles
cytopalsm
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organelles in eukaryote
mitochondria, chloroplasts "(in plants), endoplasmic reticulum (ER), golgi apparatus, lysosomes
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Photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts
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Protein and lipid synthesis.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
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Protein modification and transport.
Golgi Apparatus
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Digestion of cellular wast
Lysosomes
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Asexual (mitosis) and sexual (meiosis)
eukaryote production
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examples of eukaryotes
humans, plants, fungi, protists
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membrane-bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells that serves as the control center for the cell
nucleus
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houses the cell's genetic material (DNA) and is responsible for regulating cellular activities such as growth, metabolism, and reproduction.
NUCLEUS
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A double membrane that encloses the nucleus.
Nuclear Envelope
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Contains nuclear pores, which regulate the exchange of materials (e.g., RNA, proteins) between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
Nuclear Envelope
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A gel-like substance inside the nucleus that contains chromatin and the nucleolus.
Nucleoplasm (Nuclear Sap)
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Provides a medium for the diffusion of ions and molecules.
Nucleoplasm (Nuclear Sap)
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Made of DNA and proteins (mainly histones).
Chromatin
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two forms of chromatin
euchromatin, heterochromatin
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Less condensed, transcriptionally active (chromatin)
euchromatin
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highly condensed, transriptionally inactive (chromatin)
heterochromatin
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A dense, spherical structure within the nucleus.
Nucleolus
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Responsible for ribosome synthesis and assembly.
Nucleolus
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Openings in the nuclear envelope that allow selective exchange of molecules like RNA and signaling molecules.
Nuclear Pores
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Functions of the Nucleus
Genetic Material Storage, regulation of gene expression, ribosome production, cell division, communication
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Controls which genes are turned on or off, thereby regulating the cell’s activities.
Regulation of Gene Expression (nucelus)
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The nucleolus synthesizes ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and assembles ribosomal subunits.
Ribosome Production
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Plays a crucial role in mitosis and meiosis by ensuring accurate DNA replication and distribution.
Cell Division (nucleus)
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Receives and processes signals from the cytoplasm, which can influence gene expression.
Communication of nucleus
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membrane-bound organelles found in most eukaryotic cells, often referred to as the "powerhouses of the cell" because they produce energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
mitochondria
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Structure of Mitochondria
outer membrane, inner membrane, intermembrane space, matrix
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A smooth membrane that surrounds the mitochondrion.
outer membrane
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Contains porins, which allow the passage of ions and molecules.
outer membrane
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Folded into structures called cristae, increasing the surface area for energy production.
Inner Membrane:
67
Houses the electron transport chain and ATP synthase, essential for ATP production.
Inner Membrane
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The space between the outer and inner membranes.
Intermembrane Space:
69
Plays a role in oxidative phosphorylation.
Intermembrane Space:
70
The innermost compartment of the mitochondrion.
Matrix:
71
Contains enzymes for the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle), mitochondrial DNA, and ribosomes
Matrix:
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Functions of Mitochondria
ATP production, regulation of metabolism, calcium storage, apoptosis, heat production, synthesis of biomolecules
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in ATP production, energy is generated through ___
cellular respiration
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in ATP production through cellular respiration it is primarily via
glycolysis, krebs cycle, oxidative phosphorylation
75
Takes place in the matrix, producing electron carriers (NADH, FADH₂).
Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)
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Occurs on the inner membrane, producing the majority of ATP.
Oxidative Phosphorylation
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Plays a central role in catabolism (breaking down molecules) and anabolism (building molecules).
mitochondria
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Helps regulate intracellular calcium levels, crucial for signaling and muscle contraction.
mitochondria
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Releases cytochrome c, triggering cell death pathways when needed.
mitochondria
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Programmed Cell Death):
apoptosis
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Specialized mitochondria in brown adipose tissue generate heat instead of ATP (thermogenesis).
mitochondria
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Contributes to the synthesis of certain steroids and amino acids.
mitochondria
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has Double Membrane
mitochondria
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Contains its own circular DNA, allowing mitochondria to produce some of their own proteins.
mitochondria
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Inherited maternally in most organisms.
mitochondria
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can divide (fission), fuse with one another, and change shape based on cellular needs.
mitochondria
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specialized structures within a cell that perform distinct functions necessary for the cell's survival and operation
organelles
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typically membrane-bound in eukaryotic cells, while prokaryotic cells have simpler, non-membrane-bound structures.
organelles
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types of organelles
nucelus, mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosome, peroxisomes, cytoskeleton, chloroplasts(plants), vacuoles, plasma membrane, cytoplasm, centromes and centrioles ( animals)
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Control center of the cell; stores genetic material (DNA).
Nucleus
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Enclosed by the nuclear envelope, contains chromatin and nucleolus.
Nucleus
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Powerhouse of the cell; produces ATP through cellular respiration.
Mitochondria
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Double membrane; contains its own DNA and ribosomes.
Mitochondria
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Protein synthesis.
Ribosomes
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Found free-floating in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Ribosomes
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Studded with ribosomes; synthesizes proteins.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
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Synthesizes lipids, detoxifies toxins, and stores calcium ions.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
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Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for transport.
Golgi Apparatus
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Flattened membrane sacs called cisternae.
Golgi Apparatus
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Digestion and recycling of cellular waste and macromolecules.
Lysosomes
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Contain hydrolytic enzymes.
Lysosomes
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Breakdown of fatty acids, detoxification of hydrogen peroxide.
Peroxisomes
103
Contain oxidative enzymes.
Peroxisomes
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Provides structure, support, and facilitates cell movement and intracellular transport.
Cytoskeleton
105
Composed of microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules.
Cytoskeleton
106
Conduct photosynthesis to produce glucose and oxygen.
Chloroplasts (Plants and some protists)
107
Double membrane, contains chlorophyll and its own DNA.
Chloroplasts (Plants and some protists)
108
Storage of water, nutrients, and waste.
Vacuoles
109
Large central vacuole in plant cells; smaller in animal cells.
Vacuoles
110
Regulates entry and exit of substances, maintains homeostasis.
Plasma Membrane
111
Composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.
Plasma Membrane
112
Jelly-like substance that supports organelles and is the site for many metabolic activities.
Cytoplasm
113
Includes the cytosol and organelles.
Cytoplasm
114
Organize microtubules during cell division.
Centrosomes and Centrioles (Animals)
115
Found near the nucleus.
Centrosomes and Centrioles (Animals)
116
Membrane-Bound organelles
nucelus, mitochondria, ER, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes
117
non-membrane bound organelles
ribosomes, cytoskeleton, cell wall (prokaryotes and plants)
118
Structure of DNA
double helix, nucelotide, base pairing, antiparallel strands, backbone
119
DNA consists of two strands twisted into a helical shape, resembling a spiral staircase.
double helix
120
The building blocks of DNA
nucleotides
121
building blocks of DNA each contain
sugar, phosphate group, nitrogenous group
122
4 types of Nitrogenous Base for DNA
Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G)
123
Base Pairing
(A-T).
(C-G).
Held together by hydrogen bonds:
A-T: Two hydrogen bonds.
C-G: Three hydrogen bonds.
124
The two strands run in opposite directions: one from 5' to 3' and the other from 3' to 5'.
Antiparallel Strands:
125
Composed of alternating sugar and phosphate groups.
Backbone:
126
Functions of DNA
Storage of Genetic Information, replication, gene expression, transmission of heredity
127
The process by which DNA is copied before cell division.
replication
128
enzymes involved in replication
helicase, DNA polymerase, ligase
129
DNA is used to make RNA. occurs in nucleus
transcription
130
RNA directs the synthesis of proteins, takes place in ribosomes
translation
131
changes in the DNA sequence that can lead to variation or diseases
mutation
132
DNA in prokaryotes
circular, few or no introns, in nucleoid region
133
RNA
single stranded, Uracil as base, sugar: ribose, less stable
133
DNA in eukaryotes
linear DNA in chromosomes, introns and exons present, in nucleus
133
DNA
double stranded, thymine as base, sugar: deoxyribose, stable
134
region within a prokaryotic cell where the cell's genetic material (DNA) is located
nucleoid
135
cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, producing four genetically unique haploid cells from one diploid parent cell
meiosis
136
cell division that forms gametes
meiosis
137
Key Features of Meiosis
Reduction Division, two rounds of divisions, genetic variation
138
what are the two rounds of division in meiosis
meiosis I and meiosis II
139
stages of meiosis
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
140
Homologous chromosomes pair up in a process called synapsis to form tetrads.
prophase 1
141
Crossing over occurs, exchanging genetic material between homologs at points called chiasmata.
prophase 1
142
Spindle fibers begin to form.
prophase 1
143
Tetrads align at the metaphase plate.
metaphase 1
144
Orientation of homologous pairs is random, leading to independent assortment.
metaphase 1
145
Homologous chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles by spindle fibers.
anaphase 1
145
Sister chromatids remain attached.
anaphase 1
146
Chromosomes arrive at poles, and the cell divides into two haploid cells.
telophase 1
147
Each cell has half the original chromosome number (haploid).
telophase 1
148
Chromosomes condense, and spindle apparatus forms.
prophase 2
149
Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate.
metaphase 2
150
Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles.
anaphase 2
151
Chromatids arrive at poles, and cells divide.
telophase 2
152
Results in four haploid cells, each genetically unique.
telophase 2
153
Importance of Meiosis
genetic diversity, formation of gametes, reduction of chromosome number
153
cell division that results in two genetically identical daughter cells from a single parent cell
mitosis
154
It occurs in somatic cells (body cells) and is essential for growth, tissue repair, and asexual reproduction in multicellular organisms.
mitosis
155
cell division for growth and repair of tissues
mitosis
156
cell division for asexual reproduction in unicellular organisms
mitosis
157
creates Two daughter cells with the same number and type of chromosomes as the parent cell
mitosis
158
Daughter cells are clones of the parent cell, maintaining genetic stability
mitosis
159
phases of mitosis
interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis
160
The cell grows and replicates its DNA. (cell division phase)
Interphase (Preparation Phase)
161
phases in interphase
G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase
162
phase in cell division where Cell grows and performs normal functions.
G1 phase
163
phase in cell division where DNA replication occurs.
S phase
164
phase in cell division where Cell prepares for mitosis by synthesizing necessary proteins.
G2 phase
165
Chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes.
Prophase
165
Each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids, joined at a centromere.
Prophase
166
Mitotic spindle forms, and centrosomes move to opposite poles.
Prophase
167
Nuclear envelope breaks down.
Prophase
168
Chromosomes align along the metaphase plate (cell's equator).
Metaphase
169
Spindle fibers attach to the kinetochores of each chromosome.
Metaphase
170
Sister chromatids are pulled apart as spindle fibers shorten.
Anaphase
170
Each chromatid becomes an individual chromosome and moves to opposite poles of the cell.
Anaphase
171
Chromosomes arrive at opposite poles and begin to decondense into chromatin.
Telophase
172
The nuclear envelope re-forms around each set of chromosomes.
Telophase
172
Spindle apparatus disassembles.
Telophase
173
The cytoplasm divides, forming two separate daughter cells.
Cytokinesis (Cytoplasmic Division)
174
Importance of Mitosis
growth, repair and maintenance, asexual reproduction, genetic stability
175
In plant cells: A cell plate forms, leading to the separation of the cells.
Cytokinesis (Cytoplasmic Division)
176
In animal cells: Cleavage furrow forms, pinching the cell into two
Cytokinesis (Cytoplasmic Division)
177
fluid component of the cytoplasm in a cell
cytosol
178
cytosol is made up of ___% water
70-80
179
semi-transparent, gel-like substance that surrounds the organelles and is distinct from the organelles and other structures within the cytoplasm.
cytosol
179
plays a critical role in cellular metabolism and serves as the medium through which substances travel within the cell.
cytosol
180
Functions of Cytosol
Site of Metabolic Reactions, transport medium, support for organelles, buffering system, storage
181
Role of cytosol in Cellular Processes
protein synthesis, signal transduction, cytoskeleton interaction, energy production
182
acts as the cellular environment where life-sustaining reactions occur, ensuring the survival and proper functioning of the cell.
cytosol
182
part of a cell that lies outside the nucleus but within the cell membrane
cytoplasm
183
essential for maintaining cellular integrity, facilitating vital biochemical processes, and enabling communication and transport within the cell
cytosol
184
plays a crucial role in maintaining the cell's structure and facilitating metabolic activities.
cytoplasm
184
consists of the cytosol (the fluid component), organelles (like mitochondria and the Golgi apparatus), and other structures such as the cytoskeleton
cytoplasm
185
Components of the Cytoplasm
cytosol, organelles, cytoskeleton, inclusions
186
Functions of the Cytoplasm
support and shape, metabolic activity, intracellular transport, storage, signal transmission
187
essential for maintaining the life of a cell, providing an environment for organelles to function, and facilitating processes critical for energy production, growth, and replication
cytoplasm
187
cytoplasm Role in Cellular Processes
cell division, protein synthesis, energy production
188
the living content of a cell that is surrounded by the plasma membrane
protoplasm
189
includes both the cytoplasm and the nucleus, encompassing all the components responsible for the cell's metabolic activities and life processes.
protoplasm
190
Often referred to as the "living substance," _____ is a vital part of all cellular life.
protoplasm
190
Components of Protoplasm
cytoplasm, nucleoplasm, plasma membrane, macromolecules and structures
191
Functions of Protoplasm
site of metabolism, support and organization, genetic organization, transport and communication, growth and reproduction
192
Significance of Protoplasm
foundation of life, adaptability, cellular process
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