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Biology 101 > Biology Midterm 3 > Flashcards

Biology Midterm 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

Gene Expression

A

The process whereby genetic information flows from genes to proteins; the flow of genetic information from the genotype to the phenotype.

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2
Q

Gene Regulation

A

The turning on and off of genes within a cell in response to environmental stimuli or other factors (such as developmental stage).

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3
Q

Operon

A

A unit of gene regulation common in prokaryotes; a cluster of genes with related functions, along with the promotes and operator that control their transcription.

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4
Q

Repressor

A

A protein that blocks the transcription of a gene or operon.

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5
Q

Operator

A

In prokaryotic DNA, a sequence of nucleotides near the start of an operon to which an active repressor protein can attach. The binding of a repressor prevents RNA polymerase from attaching to the promoter and transcribing the genes of the operon. The operator sequence thereby acts as a genetic switch that can turn all the genes in an operon on or off as a single functional unit.

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6
Q

Promoter

A

A specific nucleotide sequence in DNA located near the start of a gene that is the binding site for RNA polymerase and the place where transcription begins.

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7
Q

Enhancer

A

A eukaryotic DNA sequence that helps stimulate the transcription of a gene at some distance from it. An enhancer functions by means of a transcription factor called an activator, which binds to it and then to the rest of the transcription apparatus.

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8
Q

Transcription Factor

A

In the eukaryotic cell, a protein that functions in initiating or regulating transcription. Transcription factors bind o DNA or to other proteins that bind to DNA.

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9
Q

Activator

A

A protein that switches on a gene or group of genes.

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10
Q

RNA Polymerase

A

A large molecular complex that links together the growing chain of RNA nucleotides during transcription, using a DNA strand as a template.

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11
Q

Silencer

A

A eukaryotic DNA sequence that functions to inhibit the start of gene transcription; may act similarly to an enhancer by binding to a repressor.

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12
Q

Homeotic Gene

A

A master control gene that determines the identity of a body structure of a developing organism, presumably by controlling the developmental fate of groups of cells.

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13
Q

Transgenic Organism

A

An organism that contains genes from another species.

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14
Q

GMOs

A

An organism that has acquired one or more genes by artificial means.

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15
Q

GM Food

A

Foods derived from GMOs.

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16
Q

Recombinant DNA

A

A DNA molecule carrying nucleotide sequences derived from two or more sources.

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17
Q

Gene Cloning

A

The production of multiple copies of a gene.

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18
Q

Plasmid

A

A small ring of independently replicating DNA separate from the main chromosome. FOund in prokaryotes and yeasts.

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19
Q

Restriction Enzyme

A

A bacterial enzyme that cuts up foreign DNA at restriction sites, thus protecting bacteria against intruding DNA from phages and other organisms.

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20
Q

Restriction Site

A

A specific sequence on a DNA strand that is recognized as a “cut site” by a restriction enzyme.

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21
Q

Restriction Fragments

A

Molecules of DNA produced from a longer DNA molecule cut up by a restriction enzyme. Fragments are used in genome mapping and other applications.

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22
Q

Sticky End

A

An end of a DNA double helix at which a few unpaired nucleotides of one strand extend beyond the other.

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23
Q

DNA Ligase

A

An enzyme essential for DNA replication that catalyzes the covalent bonding of adjacent DNA polynucleotide strands. DNA ligase is used in genetic engineering to paste a specific piece of DNA containing a gene of interest into a bacterial plasmid or other vector.

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24
Q

Gene Transfer

A

The transfer of genes between organisms in a manner other than traditional reproduction.

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25
Q

Organic Food

A

Organic foods are made in a way that limits the use of synthetic materials during production.

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26
Q

DNA profiling

A

A procedure that analyzes DNA samples to determine if they came from the same individual.

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27
Q

PCR

A

Polymerase chain reaction. A technique used to obtain many copies of a DNA molecule or a specific part of a DNA molecule. In the procedure, the starting DNA is mixed with a heat-resistant DNA polymerase, DNA nucleotides, and more ingredients. Specific nucleotide primers franking the region to be copied ensure that it, and not other regions of the DNA, is replicated during PCR.

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28
Q

Primers

A

Short, artificially created, single-stranded DNA molecules that bind to each end of a target sequence during PCR.

29
Q

DNA Polymerase

A

A large molecular complex that assembles DNA nucleotides into polynucleotides using a preexisting strand of DNA as a template.

30
Q

Gel Electrophoresis

A

A technique for separating and purifying macromolecules, either DNAs or proteins. A mixture of the macromolecules is placed on a gel between a positively charged electrode and a negatively charged one. The molecules separate in the gel according to their rates of migration, which is mostly determined by their size.

31
Q

Ladder

A

A solution of DNA molecules of different lengths used in agarose gel electrophoresis.

32
Q

Short Tandem Repeat (STR)

A

A series of short DNA sequences that are repeated many times in a row in the genome.

33
Q

STR Analysis

A

A method of DNA profiling that compares the lengths of short tandem repeats selected from specific sites within the genome.

34
Q

CODIS

A

The Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) is a DNA database funded by the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). It is a computer system that stores DNA profiles created by federal, state, and local crime laboratories in the United States, with the ability to search the database to assist in the identification of suspects in crimes.

35
Q

Heterochromatin

A

Chromosome material of different density from normal (usually greater), in which the activity of the genes is modified or suppressed.

36
Q

Euchromatin

A

A lightly packed form of chromatin (DNA, RNA and protein) that is rich in gene concentration, and is often (but not always) under active transcription.

37
Q

Telomere

A

The repetitive DNA at each end of a eukaryotic chromosome.

38
Q

Gene Therapy

A

A treatment for a disease in which the patient’s defective gene is supplemented or altered.

39
Q

Adeno-associated Virus (AAV)

A

A virus used to construct vectors that introduce genes into cultured cells.

40
Q

Lentivirus

A

a genus of viruses of the Retroviridae family, characterized by a long incubation period. Lentiviruses can deliver a significant amount of viral RNA into the DNA of the host cell and have the unique ability among retroviruses of being able to infect non-dividing cells, so they are one of the most efficient methods of a gene delivery vector.

41
Q

Reverse Transcription

A

The process by which DNA is synthesized from an RNA template by means of the enzyme reverse transcriptase.

42
Q

Recombination

A

The rearrangement of genetic material, esp. by crossing over in chromosomes or by the artificial joining of segments of DNA from different organisms.

43
Q

Aneuploidy

A

An abnormal number of chromosomes.

44
Q

Translocation

A

A change in a chromosome resulting from a chromosomal fragment attaching to a non-homologous chromosome; can occur as a result of an error in meiosis or mutagenesis.

45
Q

p arm

A

The short arm of a chromosome.

46
Q

q arm

A

The long arm of a chromosome.

47
Q

siRNA

A

A class of double-stranded RNA molecules, 20-25 base pairs in length. Its most notable is in the RNA interference (RNAi) pathway, where it interferes with the expression of specific genes with complementary nucleotide sequence.

48
Q

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE)

A

A progressive degenerative disease of the brain found in athletes (and others) with a history of repetitive brain trauma, including symptomatic concussions as well as asymptomatic subconcussive hits to the head. Associated with memory loss, confusion, impaired judgment, impulse control problems, aggression, depression, and, eventually, progressive dementia.

49
Q

Concussion

A

Temporary unconsciousness caused by a blow to the head.

50
Q

Tau Protein

A

Tau proteins are proteins that stabilize microtubules. They are abundant in neurons in the central nervous system.

51
Q

Neurofibrillary Tangles (NFT)

A

Abnormal structures, composed of twisted masses of protein fibers within nerve cells, found in the brains of people with Alzheimer’s disease.

52
Q

Tauopathy

A

A group of neurodegenerative diseases characterized by accumulation of tau (τ) protein in the brain. Includes Alzheimer disease, Pick disease, corticobasal degeneration, and other related disorders.

53
Q

ApoE4

A

E4 has been implicated in atherosclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease, impaired cognitive function, reduced hippocampal volume, faster disease progression in Multiple Sclerosis, unfavorable outcome after traumatic brain injury.

54
Q

Biological Species Concept

A

Definition of a species as a group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable fertile offspring.

55
Q

Morphological Species Concept

A

A definition of species in terms of measurable anatomical criteria.

56
Q

Ecological Species Concept

A

A definition of species in terms of ecological niche, the sum of how members of the species interact with the nonliving and living parts of their environment.

57
Q

Phylogenic Species Concept

A

A definition of species as the smallest group of individuals that shares a common ancestor, forming one branch on the tree of life.

58
Q

Reproductive Barrier

A

Any biological trait that interferes with reproductive interactions among populations.

59
Q

Pre-zygotic barrier

A

A reproductive barrier that impedes mating between species of hinder fertilization if mating between two species is attempted. Includes: temporal, habitat, behavioral, mechanical, and gametic isolation.

60
Q

Post-zygotic Barrier

A

A reproductive barrier that prevents hybrid zygotes produced by two different species from developing into viable, fertile adults. Includes: reduced hybrid viability, reduced hybrid fertility, and hybrid breakdown.

61
Q

Allopatric Speciation

A

The formation of a new species in populations that are geographically isolated from one another.

62
Q

Sympatric Speciation

A

The formation of new species in populations that live in the same geographic area.

63
Q

Adaptive Radiation

A

period of evolutionary change in which groups of organisms form many new species whose adaptations allow them to fill new or vacant ecological roles in their communities.

64
Q

Habitat Isolation

A

Species live in different habitats within the same area and rarely meet.

65
Q

Temporal Isolation

A

Breeding occurs at different times of the day or different seasons.

66
Q

Behavioral Isolation

A

Different courtship rituals or other behaviors prevent mate recognition between species.

67
Q

Mechanical Isolation

A

Differences in physical structures prevent successful mating.

68
Q

Gametic Isolation

A

Male and female gametes of different species fail to unite.

69
Q

Hybrid

A

An offspring of parents of two different species or of two parents that differ in one or more inherited traits; an individual that is heterozygous for one or more pairs of genes.

Biology 101 (2 decks)

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