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Biology Honors Midterm > Biology Honors MIDTERM > Flashcards

Biology Honors MIDTERM Flashcards

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1
Q

Regulation

A

The nervous system; runs in the background (ie. blinking, flinching); helps maintain homestasis

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2
Q

Growth

A

Growth in cell size or cell mumber

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3
Q

Respiration

A

Release chemical energy in nutrients to power up our life functions

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4
Q

Excretion

A

Waste from chemical reactions (pee); NOT poop

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5
Q

Nutrition

A

The process of obtaining food necessary for health and growth; ingestion, digestion, egestion

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6
Q

Synthesis

A

Make a large thing from many small things (making a bridge)

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7
Q

Assimilation

A

How a living organism incorporates complex substances/molecules (building a brick house)

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8
Q

Transport

A

Circulation and absorption of materials into cell

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9
Q

Homeostasis

A

Keeping your body constant inspite of external changes (body shivering).

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9
Q

autotrophs

A

creates their own food/glucose EX. PLANTS

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10
Q

heterotrophs

A

Eats other things to get glucose

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11
Q

Anaerobic

A

Don’t need oxygen to do respiration/function (ex. bacteria)

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12
Q

Aerobic

A

Need oxygen to do respiration/function (ex. humans & plants)

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13
Q

Ingestion

A

Taking food in your body (mouth)

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14
Q

Digestion

A

To chew the food

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15
Q

Egestion

A

You poop it out

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16
Q

Theory

A

The established explanation given for many different observations seen by researches (like the germ theory)

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17
Q

Law

A

Accepted at face value (no proof needed) – like the law of gravity

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18
Q

Law

A

Accepted at face value (no proof needed) – like the law of gravity

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19
Q

Chromatography

A

Separation into components based on solubility in solvent

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20
Q

Spectophotometry

A

Use light absorbed to determine the concentration of substances

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21
Q

Electrophoresis

A

Separate mixtures based upon size and charge

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22
Q

Tissue culture

A

Growing human cells or any cells in a lab

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23
Q

Microdissection

A

Has the ability to dissect something as small as a cell

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24
Q

Recombinant DNA

A

DNA that has been altered

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25
Q

Transgenic Organisms

A

Bacterial thing; gives animal genes that they never had

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26
Q

Matter

A

Anything that takes up space and has weight

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27
Q

Atom

A

Smallest unit of matter

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28
Q

Isotopes

A

Same atomic number but vary in mass; atomic number = protons which = electrons

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29
Q

Elements

A

Substance made of one type of atom

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30
Q

Radioactive Isotopes

A

Unstable nucleus; emits charged particles & radiation; used as biological tracers

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31
Q

Electron orbitals

A

Valence energy (inner perfect = 2)

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32
Q

Outermost shell

A

Perfect number

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33
Q

Compound

A

The union of elements that connected via covalent bonds

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34
Q

Electrostatic Interaction

A

Opposites are attracted to each other (hydrogen bonds)

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35
Q

Diatomic Molecule

A

Composed of two atoms of the same element

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36
Q

Single dash; double dash

A

Single bond; double bond (covalent bond)

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37
Q

Chemical formula

A

C6H12O6

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38
Q

Chemical reactions

A

When compounds interact, new compounds are formed (NEED WATERR!!!! because you need a solvent)

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39
Q

Suspension

A

No dissolving seen; mixture separates upon standing (sand in the pool); add two things to each other and they will separate b/c of time)

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40
Q

Law of Conservation of Matter

A

Matter cannot be created or destroyed

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41
Q

Mixtures

A

Substances physically mixed with no new chemical bonds formed; all members retain their usual properties

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42
Q

Liquid mixtures

A

Solution

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43
Q

Solutions

A

Solvent and Solute: Salt and water; Sugar and water; Sugar and tea; Hot choco. and milk

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44
Q

Solvent

A

Dissolves solute (water)

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45
Q

Solute

A

Dissolves in solvent (liquid, solid, or gas)

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46
Q

Colloidal Dispersion

A

Particles are too light to remain suspended (ex. milk, cream, & carbon).

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47
Q

Acids

A

Sour taste; in solution, releases H+ (Hydrogen) ions; HCI ——> H+ + CI- BLUE TO RED

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48
Q

Bases

A

Slippery feel; in solution, releases OH- (Hydroxide); NaOH —–> Na+ + OH-; RED TO BLUE

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49
Q

Neutralization reactions

A

Acid + Base —> Salt and water

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50
Q

pH

A

The negative log in concentration; the lower the #, the more acidic; the higher the #, the more basic

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51
Q

Organic

A

Substance/molecule having carbon and hyrdogen

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52
Q

Organic Compounds

A

Glucose (C6H12O6), CH4 (Methane), CH3CH2OH (Ethanol, Alcohol)

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53
Q

Inorganic Compounds

A

H20, CO2, H2SO4, NaCI

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54
Q

Cohesion

A

The ability of water to stick to each other (water is attracted to each other because of H bonds…ex. water drop shape and surface tension)

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55
Q

Adhesion

A

Water molecules are attracted to substances other than water (sticks to other things…ex. capillary action)

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56
Q

Classes of organic compounds

A

Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, and Nucleic Acids

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57
Q

Carbohydrates

A

C,H,O; H:O ration = 2:1; monomer = monosaccharides (simle sugar); the energy role in life

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58
Q

monosaccharides

A

Glucose, fructose & galactose; some molecular formula (C6H12O8) but arranged differently (ISOMER)

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59
Q

Isomer

A

In which two or more organic compounds have the same molecular formula but different structures

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60
Q

Disaccharides

A

A double sugar; Maltose, Sucrose & Lactose

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61
Q

Maltose

A

Composed of 2 glucose connected by an o-bridge

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62
Q

Sucrose

A

Composed of glucose and fructose + connected by an o-bridge

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63
Q

Lactose

A

Composed of glucose and galactose (milk, sugar) and is connected by an o-bridge

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64
Q

Polysaccharides

A

Many (>20) simple sugars connected (polymer); starch, cellouse, chitin, & glycogen

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65
Q

Starch
Cellouse
Chitin

A

Potato + Corn starch
Cell wall in plant
Exo-skeleton in bugs

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66
Q

Glycogen

A

“animal starch”; how we store our polysaccharides; our cells utilize glucose to create energy, yet, our cells warehouse that glucose in Glycogen

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67
Q

Maltose Chemical Form.

A

C12H22011 (not double because we lost one H2O molecule via o-bridge)

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68
Q

Dehydration Synthesis

A

Lose water to build something bigger; how we connect monomers

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69
Q

O-bridge

A

Glycosidic linkage (everytime monosacccharides are formed, a water molecule is formed)

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70
Q

Hydrolysis

A

Breaking something apart by using water (how we break apart polymers)

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71
Q

Lipids

A

C,H,O; H:O ratio MUCH greater than 2:1; fats, oils, waxes, steroids& terpenes

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72
Q

Glycerol

A

Monomer of lipids BUT only went connected to other monomers; 3 hydro-carbons with 3 hydroxyl groups

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73
Q

Fatty Acids

A

Monomer of lipids; chain of hydro-carbons w/ a carboxyl group @ the end; saturated and unsaturated

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74
Q

Lipid Triglyceride

A

When formed, we lose 3 molecules of water; composed of 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol

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75
Q

Phospholipid

A

Two fatty acids, a glycerol unit with a phosphate group (polymer)

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76
Q

Saturated fats

A

Butter, lard, whole milk, other animal products; rich diet leads to increased cholesterol, heart disease and arteriosclerosis

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77
Q

Cholesterol

A

Necessary to live, yet, too much - bad

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78
Q

Hydrogenated Fats

A

Add hydrogen to liquid; unsaturated fats to make them solid saturated fats

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79
Q

Electronegativity

A

The tendency of an atom to attract electrons towards itself

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80
Q

Phosphate

A

One phosphorous & 4 O atoms

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81
Q

Proteins

A

C,H,O,N; Makes up cartilage, bone, muscles, hormones, antibodies & enzymes; NEED to function

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82
Q

Amino Acids and Peptides

A

Monomer of protein (same thing)

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83
Q

Carboxyl Group

A

Combination of two functional groups attached to a single carbon atom (COOH)

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84
Q

Peptide bond

A

N to Carbon

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85
Q

Polypeptide

A

Chain of amino acids

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86
Q

Primary Structure

A

Peptides connected by peptide bonds

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87
Q

Secondary structure

A

Alpha-Helix and/or Beta pleated sheet strucutre held by Hydrogen Bonds

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88
Q

Tertiary Structure

A

Give overall shape of the protein as globular or fibrous held together by hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic/hydrophilic, ionic bonds, disulfide bonds

89
Q

Quaternary Structure

A

Multiple polypeptides chains connected

90
Q

Enzymes

A

Type of proteins that act as a biological catalysts (very specific)

91
Q

Nucleic Acids

A

C,H,O,N; Genetic Material

92
Q

Nucleotide

A

Monomer of Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA

93
Q

DNA

A

Deoxyribonucleic Acid, genetic material, from parent to child: TAGC

94
Q

RNA

A

Ribonucleic Acid, rough copy of RNA (UAGC)

95
Q

Cellular Respiration

A

the release of energy stored in food; the released energy is stored in molecules of ATP

96
Q

Aerobic Cellular Respiration

A

Glucose + oxygen gas –> carbon + water + ATP (energy); eukaryotes

97
Q

Anaerobic Cellular Respiration

A

Glucose —> Lactic Acid or Ethyl Alcohol & CO2 + 2 ATP; Prokaryotes

98
Q

Oxidation

A

A molecule loses electrons or H Atoms (how you pull apart a glucose molecule)

99
Q

Reduction

A

A molecule gains electrons or H atoms (how you pull apart a glucose molecule)

100
Q

Isomerases

A

Enzyme that converts a molecule into an isomer

101
Q

Dehydrogenases and Hydrogenes

A

Enzymes that transfer Hs

102
Q

Kinases and Phosphatases

A

Transfer phosphate groups

103
Q

Facultative Anaerobes

A

Switch hitters (does both respirations depending if O is present)

104
Q

Obligate or strict Anaerobes

A

Only do anaerobic respiration & will die in the presence of O

105
Q

Photosynthesis

A

Capture sunlight energy and convert it into the chemical energy stored in glucose

106
Q

Photons

A

Bundles of light

107
Q

Light-Dependent Reactions

A

Help in Grana; need sunlight or Red or Blue light

108
Q

Light-Independent Reactions

A

Calvin cycle; held in Strama; Can occur day or night

goes around 6 times to make glucose

109
Q

Diffusion

A

Molecules move from a region of high concentration to a region of lower concentration until equilibrium; no energy needed; need a concentration gradient

110
Q

Facilitated Diffusion

A

Passive-no energy needed but required transport proteins; need gradient

111
Q

Osmosis

A

Diffusion of water; goes from high water concentration to low water concentration OR low solute concentration to high solute concentration

112
Q

Hypertonic

A

Contains more solute than something else

water is hypertonic to the organisms living in it

113
Q

Hypotonic

A

Contains less solute than something else

114
Q

Isotonic

A

Contains the same amount of solute as something else

115
Q

Plant Cells in different environments

A

Flaccid –> Floppy
Turgid –> swollen and hard
Shriveled –> Kills the plant

116
Q

Active Transport

A

Requires Energy (ie. Need ATPs)
Move materials against a concentration gradient

117
Q

Endocytosis

A

Transporting things into a cell; Pinocytosis and Phagocytosis

118
Q

Pinocytosis

A

Taking small amounts of things into a cell via vesicles

119
Q

Phagocytosis

A

Taking large solid materials into a cell via food vacuoles

120
Q

Chromosomes

A

One molecule of DNAA wrapped around Histones

121
Q

Sister chromatids

A

Doubled chromosomes

122
Q

Chromatin

A

DNA

123
Q

Cancer

A

No density dependent Inhibitation; don’t respond to normal “off signals”, uncontrolled replication of cells

124
Q

Oncogenes

A

“Gas”; code for proteins that enhance cell division

125
Q

Tumor suppressor Genes

A

“Brakes”; code for proteins that inhibit cell division

126
Q

Autosomes

A

Chromosomes that have info. on how to build a body

127
Q

Homologous Chromosomes

A

Chromosomes that look similar & have the same genetic info (genes for eye color)

128
Q

Diploid

A

Has a mom & dad version of each chromosome: 2n; Most body cells

129
Q

Haploid

A

Has either a mom or dad chromosome; n; Gametes (Sperm and egg)

130
Q

Law of Segregation

A

Alleles segregate or separate during meiosis and can come together in different pairings

131
Q

Law of Independent Assortment

A

Traits are usually inherited independent of each other – linked genes are an exception

132
Q

Dihybrid

A

9:3:3:1

133
Q

Monohybrid

A

3:1

134
Q

Schleiden

A

All plants are made of cells

135
Q

Schwann

A

All animals are made of cells

136
Q

Virchow

A

Cells can only come from preexisting cells

137
Q

Nucleus

A

Cellular control center
Surrounded by a nuclear membrane
Holds Nucleolus (Nucleoli) = have a role in ribosome synthesis
Holds Nucleoplasm
has DNA

138
Q

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

A

Network of chemicals for transport of proteins
contains ribosomes
proteins fold here

139
Q

Ribosomes

A

synthesize proteins
large and small subunits

140
Q

DNA doesn’t leave nucleus…

A

make a rough copy of segment of blueprints (mRNA)
mRNA leaves nucleus through nuclear pore
mRNA binds Free or ER ribosome
Ribosome makes protein

141
Q

the protein folds in…

A

Endoplasmic Reticulum

142
Q

Smooth ER

A

Important in lipid synthesis for membranes

143
Q

How does the protein get to the Golgi Apparatus?

A

Transport Vesicle

144
Q

Golgi Apparatus

A

Stack of flat sacs
Processing, sorting, packaging, shipping, modifying proteins with carbs or lipids

145
Q

Cytoplasm

A

(not an organelle)
Mostly water
Place where most organelles are found
Place for chemical for chemical reactions

146
Q

Mitochondria

A

Performs cellular respiration
Converts sugar into energy
“Powerhouse” of cell
HAS OWN DNA AND CAN REPLICATE INDEPENDENTLY

147
Q

Lysosome

A

Garbage can of the cell
Can be involved with defense
Can be involved with development

148
Q

Peroxisomes

A

Similar to lysosomes
Break down substances
Produces Hydrogen peroxide as a waste product but then breaks it down

149
Q

Autophagy

A

“Pac-men” who gobble cytoplasm with worn our proteins and organelles and brings it to the lysosome
Defense role against bacteria and viruses

150
Q

Apoptosis

A

Suicidal Cells

151
Q

Vacuoles

A

Small but numerous
Mainly in plants and protists
In animal cells
Storage functions (pigments, food, toxins, wastes)
Digestive functions
Water balance

152
Q

Food Vacuoles

A

Stomach of the celll

153
Q

Central Vacuole

A

(in plant cells)
storage
water balance

153
Q

Central Vacuole

A

(in plant cells)
storage
water balance

154
Q

microskeleton

A

Microtubules
Intermediate Filaments
Microfilaments

155
Q

Microtubules

A

Provides cell shape
Organelle anchors and molecular motors
Make up centrioles
Movement of cilia and flagella

156
Q

Intermediate Filaments

A

Anchor Chromatin
Anchorage and Reinforcement Rods inside Nucleus

157
Q

Centrioles

A

Involved with cellular division
2 barrel like structures
Located in centrosome region
Made of Microtubules
Not found in plant cells
9 Triplet pattern

158
Q

Plastids

A

Found only in photosynthetic cells)
Leucoplasts=storage site for nutrients
Chromoplasts=pigment storage sites
Ex. Chloroplast filled with chlorophyll

159
Q

Chloroplast

A

Site of Photosynthesis
Has own DNA and can replicate independently
GRANA and STROMA

160
Q

Cilia

A

Short, numerous
Involved with cell movement
Connected to cell via a basal body
Have a 9+2 microtubule arrangement

161
Q

Flagella

A

Usually 1 or 2 per cell
Long
Can be in front or back of cell
Connected via basal body
9+2 pattern of microtubules

162
Q

Plasma (cell) membrane

A

Holds in cytoplasm
Selectively Permeable
Components:
Phospholipids=Hydrophobic barrier
Cholesterol=provide fluidity
Proteins=transport Channels/Carriers), receptors, enzymes, anchors
Carbohydrates=cell signaling (self/nonself)

163
Q

Extracellular Matrix

A

Network of fibrous collagen, and glycoproteins
Connected to cytoskeleton via Integrin proteins in membrane
Gives support, strength and resilience

164
Q

Endomembrane system

A

Nucleus, ER LUMEN, RIBOSOMES, ER MEMBRANE, TRANSPORT VESICLES, GOLGI LUMEN AND LYSOSOMES

165
Q

Plant cell

A

Cell wall
Chloroplasts
No centrioles
One, large vacuole

166
Q

Cell wall

A

In bacteria, yeast, and plant cells
Exterior to plasama membrane
Provides shape and protection
Made of ceolllose in plant cells

167
Q

Cell wall

A

In bacteria, yeast, and plant cells
Exterior to plasama membrane
Provides shape and protection

168
Q

Endosymbiotic Theory

A

Mitochondria and Chloroplasts evolved from
bacteria that were gobbled up by an ancient
Cell.

169
Q

Proof of Endosymbiotic Theory

A

Mitochondria and Chloroplast have own DNA
They can replicate independent
Same size as present bacteria
They have own ribosomes and are bacterial-like

170
Q

What can cross the membrane freely?

A

Lipid-like molecules
Small uncharged molecules (ex. H20, CO2, 02,amino acids)
Some small molecules can cross freely but need a helper membrane transport protein (ex. Glucose)
Charged substances also need help to cross
Large molecules like polymers can’t cross

171
Q

Hydrogen acceptors

A

NAD+ (1 H) and FAD (2 H)

172
Q

Anaerobic Respiration Steps

A

1) Glycolysis
2) FERMENTATION (Primitive)

173
Q

Glycolysis

A

Start with one molecule of glucose
Need to use 2 ATPs to start reaction
Form 2 NADH
Form 4 ATPs (so net 2 ATPs)
Form 2 Pyruvic Acid Molecules (3 Carbons)
Occurs in the cytoplasm

174
Q

Fermentation

A

Ethyl Alcohol
Yeast and bacteria
Lactic
Bacteria and muscle fatigue

175
Q

Aerobic Cellular Respiration

A

Glycolysis
Pyruvic Acid Breakdown
Krebs Cycle
Chemiosmosis and the Electron Transport Chain

176
Q

Pyruvic Acid Breakdown

A

Starts with 2 Pyruvic Acid Molecules (3 carbons)

2 NADH/Glucose Molecule/Pyruvic Acid

2 CO2/Glucose Molecule/Pyruvic Acid

occurs in the mitochondrial matrix

177
Q

Krebs Cycle (a.k.a Citric-Acid Cycle)

A

Occurs in Matrix Region of Mitochondrion
6 NADH/Glucose Molecule
2 FADH2/Glucose Molecule
2 ATP/ Glucose Molecule

178
Q

Chemiosmosis and the Electron Transport Chain

A

occurs in the inner membrane cristae of the mitochondria

ETC

Starts: H+s of (FADH2 and NADH)
Ends: Loses all energy and combines with O to form H2O

Starts: NADHS and FADH2S
Process produces about 32 ATP

179
Q

Contractile Vacuole

A

Pushes water out so fresh water organism can breath

180
Q

Receptor-mediated endocytosis

A

Recognizes the shape of the protein and it lets in/out the cell but if somethings not a protein, it won’t let it in/out

181
Q

Lac Operon

A

In bacteria, if lactose is not present, a repressor will bind to the operator, and the operator will not work. If lactose is present, it will bind to the repressor and the repressor will change shape and fall off the operon, allowing the operon to work.

182
Q

Interphase

A

Most of the time a cell is in Interphase (90% of time)
G1 Phase= Cell metabolizes, replicates organelles, increases in volume
S Phase= Doubles its DNA
G2 Phase= Increases more in size, replicates enzymes and other proteins

183
Q

Methods of Asexual Reproduction

A

Binary Fission
Budding
Spore Formation
Regeneration

184
Q

Natural Vegetative Reproduction

A

Bulbs
Corms
Tublers
Runner
Rhizome

185
Q

Artificial Vegetative Propagation

A

cuttings
layering
grafting

186
Q

cytokinesis

A

Cytoplasm divides

187
Q

Scientific Method

A
  1. Define Problem
  2. Formulate Hypothesis
  3. Test Hypothesis
    -Write out the materials and methods needed
    Need Positive and Negative Controls
  4. Collect Data:
    Display in form of graph or table or photo in a “Results” section of a scientific paper
  5. Analyze data and make conclusions about data in a “Conclusions” section of a scientific paper
188
Q

Mitosis

A

PMAT

189
Q

Prophase

A

Chromatin twists tight and thus thickens and shortens
Chromatin now appear as Chromosomes
Nucleolus disappears
Nuclear Membrane breaks down
Centriole pairs move to poles of cell
Spindle fibers form out of centrioles and bind to kinetochore of sister chromatids

190
Q

Metaphase

A

Chromosomes line up at the equator of cell (i.e.. metaphase plate)
Spindle Fibers are attached to each sister chromatid via kinetochore on chromatid

191
Q

Anaphase

A

Centromere region comes apart
Sister chromatids pulled away from each other
Each sister is now a full-fledged chromosome

192
Q

Telophase

A

Nuclear membranes reform
Centriole pairs at the extreme poles
Cleavage furrow or cell plate forms
Nucleolus reappears in each new cell
Spindle fibers recede

193
Q

Prophase I

A

Same like Mitosis Prophase except here you have “Synapsis” and “Crossing-Over” of homologous pairs of chromosomes
Genetic Recombination

194
Q

“Crossing-Over”

A

After they find eachother, they do criss cross and give a big “hug”; parts of both chromosomes break off and give theirselves to the contradicting chromosome.

195
Q

synapsis

A

When they find eachother and come together

196
Q

Genetic Recombination

A

Miss-mash our genetics; makes offsprings different as compared to eachother

197
Q

Metaphase I

A

Homologous Pairs lining up at equator and not individual sister chromatids

198
Q

Anaphase I

A

Homologous Pairs separate and NOT sister chromatids

199
Q

Genetic Recombination

A

Miss-mash our genetics; makes offsprings different as compared to eachother

200
Q

Mitosis

A

2n-2n

201
Q

Metosis

A

2n-n

202
Q

Covalent Bonds

A

A system where two atoms are sharing one electron

203
Q

Ionic Bond

A

When two opposite unstable charged atoms come together and share electrons with each other (b/c of electrostatic interaction)

204
Q

Polar

A

Unequal

205
Q

Nonpolar

A

Equal

206
Q

disulfide bonds

A

Between the two Ss of the RSSR

207
Q

The bond between the Os and H in H20 are

A

Polar

208
Q

Hydrogen Bonding

A

Electrostatic Interaction (negative and positive charge)
Inter molecular bond (between different molecules)

209
Q

Polar/nonpolar covalent bonds

A

Intra molecular bonds (between the same molecules)

210
Q

H bonds allow….

A

for the many qualities of water we are accustomed to; like boiling water (must break h-bonds) and surface tension

211
Q

Salt

A

Ionic compound
Na+ and Cl-

212
Q

Antony Van Leewanhoek

A

Simple Microscope

213
Q

Robert Hooke

A

Compound Microscope

214
Q

Robert Brown

A

Cell theory

215
Q

Barbara McClintock

A

discovered jumping genes

216
Q

History of Molecular Genetics

A

Bacterial transformation with “factors”
Transform S bacteria to R bacteria
Avery, MacLeod and McCarty (1944)
The “factor” was DNA
Hershey and Chase (1944)
Worked with viruses (bacteriophages)
DNA carries genetic instructions
Watson and Crick (Rose Franklin)(1953)
DNA Structure

217
Q

DNA Transcription

A

DNA code converted to mRNA
Happens in Nucleus
DNA code
Codons=three base pairs
Each codon codes for an amino acid
Ex: CAC=Histidine
Start Codons at the beginning of genes
Stop Codons at the ending of genes
Each gene codes for one polypeptide (One Gene-One Polypeptide Hypothesis)
mRNA leaves nucleus and enters cytoplasm
Single-stranded, ribose sugar, Uracil instead of Thymine
mRNA is processed (–shortens) before meeting a ribosome

218
Q

Protein Synthesis-DNA Translation

A

Translate mRNA (which is really DNA code) to protein
Need:
mRNA
Ribosome
T-RNA
Amino acids

AUG –> Start
UAC –> stop

219
Q

exocytosis

A

form of active transport and bulk transport in which a cell transports molecules out of the cell.

220
Q

Scanning Electron Microscope

A

100,000X Magnification
Can’t view live organisms
3D Image
Blast electrons at object

Biology Honors Midterm (2 decks)

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