biology chpt 3 Flashcards
1
Q
what are the properties of simple multicellular organisms
A
adhesion molecules, little communication or transfer, little differentiation, retains a full range of functions, in contact with external environment
1
Q
where do unicellular organisms derive everything from
A
the environment
2
Q
derive, expel, energy
A
unicellular organisms
3
Q
what limits unicellular organisms
A
diffusion
4
Q
what are the four types of tissue
A
connective, epithelial, muscular, nervous
5
Q
fat, bone, cartilage
A
connective tissue
6
Q
covers our body surfaces (skin)
A
epithelial tissue
7
Q
skeletal, smooth, and cardiac
A
muscular tissue
8
Q
specialized cells that conduct signals
A
nervous tissue
9
Q
how do organisms overcome the limits of diffusion
A
rely on diffusion and bulk transport
10
Q
communicates necessary info to all cells
A
nervous system and endocrine system
11
Q
translates signals into actions
A
muscles/skeleton
12
Q
distributes nutrients/energy/oxygen to muscles
A
respiration
13
Q
removes waste by breaking down energy
A
GI tract and kidneys
14
Q
defense
A
immune system, brain
15
Q
how is homeostasis maintained
A
negative feedback
16
Q
what do networks of neurons do
A
receive, process, and transmit info
17
Q
concentrating sensory organs and nervous system components at the front of the body
A
cephalization
18
Q
how did cephalization evolve
A
evolution over time through forward locomotion and predatory adaptation
19
Q
what do nervous systems do
A
sense, integrate, and coordinate responses
20
Q
responsible for taste, smell, sound, sense
A
sensory neuron
21
Q
within the CNS
A
interneuron
22
Q
movement of vessels/muscles/glands
A
motor neuron
23
Q
molecules used to transmit messages within signal transduction pathways in nerves
A
neurotransmitters
24
what is the resting membrane potential in neurons
-70 mV
25
what causes the membrane potential
the concentration of extracellular Na+ compared to lesser intracellular K+
26
what dictates the membrane potential of a neuron
equilibrium potentials
27
how is resting membrane potential maintained or changed
voltage gated NA and K channels/pumps
28
what is the threshold of excitation
the mV that allows for a spike in membrane potential
29
what happens when the threshold of excitation is reached
the membrane depolarizes, there is a spike in action potential, and the voltage gated NA channels open
30
when peak action potential is reached and the mV starts to decline...
the membrane repolarizes and the voltage gated NA channel closes while the K channel opens
31
why is there a dip following membrane repolarization
the amount of K ions out of hte membrane is overshot, causing a refractory period before returning to resting
32
potentials jump from node to node at a high speed because of myelin isulation of the axon
saltatory propagation
33
cells that hold neurons in place and help them work the way they should, underscore neuron specialization
glial cells
34
gap in the myelin sheath between schwan cells
node of ranvier
35
steps of synapses
synaptic transmission, depolarization, vesicles fuse and neurotransmitters released and bind, inactivation
36
make up 70% of the CNS, scaffolding, provide structure of neuron
astrocytes
37
EPSP
excitatory postsynaptic potential, need multiple at once to result in spatial summation
38
IPSP
inhibitory postsynaptic potential, cancels out EPSP to result in no action potential
39
when EPSPs at 2 or more different synpases set off an action potential
spatial summation
40
made up of cranial nerves and spinal nerves
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
41
made up of brain and spinal cord
central nervous system (CNS)
42
two parts of the PNS
voluntary (somatic) and involuntary (autonomic)
43
conscious rxns, responding to the environment, sight, smell, sound, motor neurons
PNS voluntary
44
unconscious rxns, regulates internal body functions to maintain homeostasis
PNS involuntary
45
two types of involuntary (autonomic) systems
parasympathetic and sympathetic
46
slows heart, stimulates digestion,
parasympathetic division
47
accelerates heart, inhibits digestion, dilates pupils,
sympathetic division (sympathetic to your survival in a scary situation)
48
synapse with sensory neurons, constantly monitoring temperature
thermo-sensitive sensory cells
49
stimulus, sensor, effector, response
path of sensory system
50
what initiates muscle contraction
motor neurons
51
acetylate binds to muscle membrane receptors, causing a depolarization of the muscle cell resulting in
contraction
52
carry signals towards the CNS, sensory neurons
afferent neurons
53
motor neurons that carry signals away from the CNS and towards muscles
efferent neurons
54
special proteins in sensory cells, embedded in sensory organs
sensory receptors
55
respond to chemical stimuli (molecules in the environment bind)
chemoreceptor
56
respond to pressure
mechanoreceptors
57
respond to light waves
photoreceptors
58
receptor in contact with the environment, present in fish,
electroreceptor
59
receptor present in skin and hypothalamus, detect changes in temperature
thermoreceptors
60
external and internally detect pain, respond to noxious signals
nocireceptors
61
what do mechanoreceptors provide info on
touch, pressure, vibration, tension
62
what does high sensitivity mean
low threshold of activation
63
what is firing rate due to
continuous or novel stimuli
64
how do receptors adapt to continuous stimuli
reduce the firing rate over time
65
enhances edges and border detections by reducing the excitation of adjacent neurons
lateral inhibition of sensory receptor cells
66
receptors that activate a G protein and secondary messengers
G protein coupled receptors
67
odorants bind to membrane receptors, action potential produced, olfactory sensory neurons sense odorants on chemosensitive hairs
smell (G protein coupled)
68
what flavors are G protein coupled
sweet, bitter, savory
69
causes Na to depolarize the cell opening gated Ca channels when tasted
salty flavors
70
tasted via H+ ion channels that depolarize but inhibit K+ channels
sour flavors
71
little hairs on the top of a taste bud
microvilli
72
within the taste bud
taste sensory cell
73
sense spicy/hot flavors, carbonation, and menthol/cool sensation
trigeminal nerve
74
how is motion and gravity detected
mechanoreception in hair cells
75
what system senses the motion and gravity of our head
vestibular system
76
little hairs on the inside of statocyst hair cells
sterocilia
77
gravity sensing cells that contain hair cells
statocyst
78
inside of a statocyst cell, within sterocilia
statolith
79
canals within the vestibular system
semicircular canals
80
chambers that detect gravity and motion
statocyst cahmber
81
contains the external auditory canal and pinna
outer ear
82
contains the malleus, incus, stapes, tympanic membrane, oval window, and ear cavity
middle ear
83
contains the vestibular nerve, branch, and cochlear branch
inner ear
84
part of the cochlear branch of the inner ear, part of auditory transduction
cochlea
85
also known as the tympanic membrane, vibrates when sound waves hit, amplifies signal
eardrum
86
membrane that moves up and down triggering signal transduction as a result of sound
basilar membrane
87
small bones in the middle ear
malleus, incus, stapes
88
organ within the cochlea, contains hair cells that act as mechanoreceptors
organ of corti
89
activated by sound vibrations and movement of the basilar and tectorial membrane
hair cells
90
STUDY EYE ANATOMY
:)
91
made up of cones, ciliary muscles contract to focus in, relax to focus on distant objects
fovea
92
sensory protein in the eye
opsin
93
perceive color, contain conopsin
cones
94
see in dim lighting, contain rhodopsins
rods
95
different wavelengths of light send different
amounts of neurotransmitters
96
hyperpolarizes the cell in light, depolarizes in dark, amplifies
phototransduction cascade
97
what are the three major brain regions
forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain
98
integrates motor and sensory info, allowing for complex motor tasks,
cerebellum
99
center for respiration and circulation, helps regulate breathing, heart/blood vessel function, digestion, sneezing, swallowing
medulla oblongate
100
neural pathway from cortex to the medulla and cerebellum
pons
101
within the forebrain, outer layer grey matter neuronal soma
cerebral cortex
102
within the cerebrum, inner layer white matter
neuronal axons
103
forebrain relay center, sends info where it needs to go
thalamus
104
links the nervous system and endocrine system via the pituitary gland
hypothalamus
105
produces melatonin and helps circadian rhythm
pineal gland
106
why is the brain highly folded
more surface area allows for more neuron cells and neurons
107
densely packed neuronal somas/dendrites
gray matter
108
axons and myelin
white matter
109
lobe responsible for decision making, taste, smell
frontal lobe
110
lobe responsible for body/spatial awareness
parietal lobe
111
lobe responsible for processing visual info
occipital lobe
112
lobe responsible for processing sound and speech
temporal lobe
113
contains the primary somatosensory cortex (tactile info) and primary motor cortex
central sulcus
114
takes in tactile info like vibrations, pain, temp, position
primary somatosensory cortex (PSC)
115
responsible for basic skeletal muscle movement in response to PSC
primary motor cortex
116
made up of the amygdala/hippocampus, responsible for behavior, learning, long term memory, olfaction, neurogenesis
limbic system
117
what sends dopamine to other parts of the brain
ventral tegmental area (VTA)
118
responsible for feelings
amygdala
119
responsible for memories
hippocampus
120
responsible for making things continue to happen, physical response to dopamine
Nucleus accumbens
121
responsible for focus after dopamine
prefrontal cortex
122
possible causes of depression
dopamine level imbalance, too little of neurotransmitter produced, not enough receptors, presynaptic takes cell back up, too few molecules to build neurotransmitters, neurotransmitters broken down in cleft
123
pathway of memories
short term memories are sent to the hippocampus and become long term memories
124
changes in neural circuits within regions of the brain
memory formation
125
memories/knowledge have to be strengthened in order to...
access them quickly
126
steps of muscle excitation
release or acetylcholine, depolarization, conducted into T-tubules, release of CA 2+, binds to troponin, exposure of myosin binding sites, shortening of muscle`
127
what do muscles allow for
power
128
what is a muscle cell made of
myofibril
129
no troponin or tropomyosin, less organized, slower response, less CA+ pumps
smooth muscle
130
shortening of a muscle to flex (bicep curl)
flexion
131
shortening of a muscle to extend (tricep)
extension
132
what does muscle force depend on
stimulation frequency
133
when one muscle fiber is stimulated one time
twitch contraction
134
when muscle force sums to higher levels due to action potentials stimulating the muscle at higher rates, reaching a tetanus
force summation
135
dictate force and dexterity of muscles
motor units
136
quickly receives and responds to signals (short live response), 3 types of neurons, neurotransmitters need specific receptors
nervous system
137
wifi of your body, secretes hormones, has a larger effect, slow response but lasting result, 2 types of hormones, specific receptors
endocrine system
138
hydrophilic hormones
peptide and amine hormones
139
hydrophobic hormones
steroid hormones
140
what type of receptors are necessary for hydrophilic hormones
cell surface receptors
141
receptors for hydrophobic hormones
intracellular receptors
142
hydrophilic, more abundant, don't cross bilayer, activate signal transd, quick response, effects last hours
peptide/amine hormonea
143
hydrophobic, corticosteroid or sex steroid, cross bilayer, alter gene expression, slower response, effects last days/months
steroid hormones
144
releasing factors
hypothalamus
145
governs reproduction
posterior pituitary gland
146
internal secretion
endocrine
146
beside secretion, regional small distance
paracrine
146
self secretion, within a cell or adjacent cells (immune system)
autocrine
147
external secretions, onto an epithelial surface (pheremones)
exocrine
148
idea that the more we use neurons, the stronger it becomes, new dendrites form,
synaptic plasticity (long-term potentiation)
149
detects brain activity by measuring electrical impulses (states of consciousness)
electroencephelogram (EEG)
150
between being awake, falling asleep, light sleep
N1
151
onset of sleep, breathing and heart rate are regular, body temp decreases
N2
152
deepest/restorative sleep, BP decreases, breathing slows, muscles relax, blood supply to muscles increases, tissue growth, energy restored
N3
153
90 min after falling asleep, every 90 min, produces energy, restores brain chemistry, solidifies new memories
REM
154
steps of sleep/memory formation
acquisition, consolidation, recall
155
muscle times from fastest to slowest
skeletal, cardiac, smooth
156
somatic NS, voluntary, striated
skeletal muscle
157
autonomic, involuntary,
cardiac/smooth muscle
158
what is the molecular basis of contraction
striations (due to filaments)
159
thin muscle filament, contains tropomyosin
actin
160
thick filament
myosin
161
basic unit of a muscle, made up of thin and thick filaments and a z disc
sarcomere
162
myosin/actin overlap, dark, contains H band in middle, length unchanged during contraction
A band of sarcomere
163
only actin, light, criss middle Z line, length contracts/shortens
I band of sarcomere
164
steps of cross bridge cycle
myosin head binds ATP, hydrolysis of ATP, head bids actin forming cross bridge, power stroke causes thin filament to slide relative to thick filament, sarcomere shortens
165
what frequency of sound travels more throughout the ear
low frequency, reaches tip of cochlea
166
what type of reception is hearing
mechanoreception
167
reception of hearing
sound waves converted to fluid waves in inner ear, hair cells stimulated to depolarize cell, then repolarized, kinocilia wire attracted causing stimulation, opens K+ channels
168
olfactory reception
G protein coupled chemoreceptor, odorants bind causing action potential, Na+ channels open
169
gustatory reception
G protein coupled chemoreceptors, sour = H+, salty = Na+, specific receptors for specific tastes
170
opthalmic reception
light travels to fovea and phototransduction occurs
171
location of cones, processes color
fovea
172
location of rods, processes periphery and shape
retina
173
phototransduction does what
hyperpolarizes membrane
174
phototransduction process
light present = transducin binds to opsin, PDE activated, converts cGMP to GMP, loss of cGMP closes Na+ channels
175
what activates a ganglion cell
photoreceptors off (phototranscution), on center bipolar cell
176
light means the photoreceptors are
off
177
neurosecretory cells secrete release factors into blood stream causing release of hormones
anterior pituitary gland
178
neurosecretory cells extend axons all the way
posterior pituitary gland
179
GNrH, CRH, TRH, growth hormone, dopamine
hypothalamus releasing hormones
180
releases tropic hormones such as follicle stimulating, lutenizing, andrenocorticotropic, thyroid stimulating, growth, and prolactin hormone
anterior pituitary gland
181
stimulate the release of more hormones
tropic hormones
182
stimulate other endocrine glands (FLAT),
Ant. Pit. tropic hormones
183
direct hormones (PEG), ex: endorphins
direct hormones
184
has capillary plexus, oxytocin, vasopressin, stores hormones and axons from hypothalamus, releases hormones to capillary beds
Posterior pituitary gland
185
helps circulate hormones
capillary plexus
186
hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, stress crushing syndrom
results of too many or too few hormones in blood stream
187
what controls metabolic rate
thyroids
188
examples of regulation via negative feedback
kidneys filter blood, liver converts to bile
189
what happens with high glucose
goes to pancreas, insulin, then taken up in body cells or stored as glycogen
190
what happens with low blood glucose
goes to pancreas, glucagon, muscle/liver break down glycogen, increases glucose levels
191
amplification of stress
hypothalamus, then anterior pituitary, then adrenal cortex, then liver, then glycogen
192
what happens during birth
positive feedback for labor
193
exocrine signaling, signals reproductive readiness, mark territory, show alarm, trail
pheremones
194
do humans have pheremone receptors
no, unsure
195
what drives diffusion
differences in partial pressure
196
how does gas exchange in the respiratory system
bulk transport and diffusion
197
steps of respiration
ventilation by bulk flow, diffusion across respiratory surface, circulation by bulk flow, diffusion between blood and cells
198
bringing oxygen into lungs through negative pressure, exhaling through positive pressure in lungs
tidal ventilation
199
is tidal ventilation passive
yes, it requires minimal energy but is less efficient
200
function of the alveolus in the lungs
red blood cells take up oxygen, carbon dioxide diffuses into alveolus (out of blood)
201
can u exhale all gas from your lungs
no, leaves stale air
202
made in bone marrow, no organelles, very small so they can be pushed slowly
red blood cells
203
fluid portion of our blood, can only hold so much oxygen, binds O2
blood plasma
204
has an alpha and beta subunit and a heme group O2 binding site
hemoglobin
205
idea that when 1 heme binds O2, the other heme groups want to bind O2 even more
cooperative binding
206
where do you need concentration gradients
paces where the body switches from bulk flow to diffusion
207
as partial pressure of oxygen increases on the hemoglobin dissociation curve...
saturation of hemoglobin increases exponentially due to cooperative binding
208
high partial pressure of oxygen results in
fully saturated hemoglobin
209
how does pH affect the dissociation curve
lower pH shifts the curve right, hemoglobin releases more O2
210
binds O2 more readily so hemoglobin delivers O2 to muscle tissues
myoglobin
211
growing fetus takes O2 from
mother's circulation
212
carry blood away from the heart, low volume, high pressure
arteries
213
carry blood towards the heart, high volume, low pressure
veins
214
opening a vessel requires
more beats per minute of heart to push blood through
215
where does blood flow slow
capillary beds
216
what part of the circulatory system has the lowest linear velocity despite the highest total cross sectional area
capillaries
217
what happens at the arterial end of the capillary
net pressure out
218
what happens at venous end of capillary
net pressure in
219
doesn't mix O2 and CO2, increased oxygen to active tissues and uptake in lungs
4 chamber heart
220
what requires more muscles in the heart
ventricles
221
which ventricle has more muscle
right ventricle
222
pathway of deoxygenated blood circulation in heart
deox blood enters the right atrium from the inferior/superior vena cava, passes through right AV valve and enters right ventricle, pumped into pulmonary arteries through pulmonary valve,
223
pathway of oxygenated blood in heart
oxygenated blood returns from the lungs to left atrium, enters left ventricle through left AV valve, pumped by left ventricle through the aortic valve into the systemic circulation
224
atria contracts, fills ventricles with blood
diastole
225
ventricles contract, pumping blood out of the heart
systole
226
heartbeat depolarization process
pacemaker (SA node) generates action potentials that cause both atria to contract in unison, signals from pacemaker cause AV node to activate and fire, action potentials transmitted through modified muscle fibers, depolarization spreads through entire ventricle causing contraction
227
what type of stimulation speeds up heart rate
sympathetic stimulation
228
shows when SA node is activated, atria contract, AV node activated, and ventricles contract
Electrocardiogram (EKG)
229
norepinephrine excites the SA, AV, and purkinje fibers, causes vasoconstriction, increased unloading in capillary beds, and heat rate
sympathetic NS
230
acetylcholine released via Vagus nerve, decreases HR and vasodilation occurs,
parasympathetic NS
231
maintains blood pressure
Vasopressin (ADH)
232
low blood pressure
blood vessels constrict (vasoconstriction)
233
high blood pressure
blood vessels relax (vasodilation)
234
ingestion, digestion, absorption
process of getting energy
235
mouth to stomach, before absorption
foregut
236
small intestine, absorption
midgut
237
large intestine to anus, expel waste
hindgut
238
gets food in and keeps it moving
ingestion
239
prepare for absorption
digestion
240
break down, mix up, move along, prepare for chemical digestion
mechanical processes of digestion
241
completed by enzymes, requires a high SA
chemical processes of digestion
242
rips, cut, crushes, grinds, responsible for mechanical digestion
teeth
243
cut and tear
incisors
244
tear
canines
245
chew/grind
molars
246
makes food moist and easier to swallow
saliva
247
moves food, helps swallow
tongue
248
enzyme that breaks down carbs
salivary amylase
249
enzyme that breaks down lipids
salivary lipase
250
what accounts for the movement of food
autonomic NS
251
path of food movement
muscular contraction/relaxation to move downward, passes through pylonic sphincter, churned and enters small intestine
252
persitalsis
rythmic contraction and relaxation of muscles
253
band of muscle at base of stomach, regulates rate of emptying
pylonic sphincter
254
what pH in stomach
1.5-3, antimicrobial and needs to denature proteins
255
secreted when food arrives, stimulates production of HCl and pepsinogen
gastrin
256
cells lining stomach secrete what to maintain low pH
HCL
257
beaks down proteins into amino acids
pepsin
258
breaks down lipids
lipases
259
is there chemical breakdown of carbs
no
260
pathway of pepsinogen
pepsinogen and HCl secreted, HCl converts pepsinogen to pepsin, pepsin activates more pepsinogen
261
function of duodenum
fats stimulate cells to secrete CCK which stimulates gallbladder to contract and release bile to break down fats, acid in duodenum stimulates to release secretin that stimulates pancreas to release bicarbonate ions to neutralize acid
262
creates enzymes for chemical digestion
pancreas
263
exocrine via pancreatic duct
trypsin, chymotrypsin (digest proteins), amylase (digests carbs), lipase (digests fats)
264
wait aids in absorption
high SA, such as in villi and microvilli
265
path of glucose absorption
glucose enters with NA+ by Na conc gradient, Na+ conc is kept low by Na/K pump, glucose exits cell by glucose transport protein
266
made of duodenum, jejunum, ileum, LONG, chemical digestion and absorption
small intestine
267
hepatic portal system
drains through spleen, pancreas, gallbladder, liver detoxes
268
detoxes anything harmful, stores sugar and sends into circulation, gluconeogenesis
liver
269
reabsorption of water, minerals, and ions, forms and stores feces, houses bacteria that provides nutrients
large intestine
270
diffusion of water
osmosis
271
purpose of the renal system
maintain water levels and homeostasis, excrete things
272
process of osmosis
selectively permeable membrane allows movement of water, moves from high solute area to low solute, net movement stops when osmotic pressure equals hydrostatic pressure
273
what impacts cell function
osmolarity
274
maintains osmotic pressure via water and electrolytes
osmoregulation in animals
275
if water level drops below normal range
hypothalamus detects higher concentration solutes, creates feeling of thirst, post. pit. released ADK, ADK stimulates absorption of water
276
water level above normal range
hypothalamus detects low solute concentration, pit. releases less ADH, kidneys reabsorb less water
277
osmoregulate and eliminate water soluble waste
kidneys
278
less toxic, created to remove nitrogenous waste
urea
279
process of filtration
filtration produces filtrate of blood, reabsorption removes useful solutes and returns them to blood, secretion adds solutes to the filtrate
280
functional unit of a kidney
nephron
281
filters blood under pressure into the extracellular space formed by Bowman's capsule through a filtration barrier
mammalian glomerulus
282
path to collecting duct
through proximal convoluted tubule, loop of henle, distal convoluted tubule, collecting duct
283
reabsorbs water, descending limb only permeable to water and ascending limb pumps salt
loop of henle
284
facilitated water absorption by being hypertonic
medulla
285
water soluble, can cross via aquaporins, descending limb permeable to it, but ascending limb is not, collecting duct is permeable to it
urea (recycling)
286
pulled out of descending limb collecting duct, put back in to pull out water and salt
urea
287
facilitates osmosis
aquaporins
