Biology, Biologists, and Biosciences Flashcards
Ages of Sand (4)
Douglas Adams 1952-2001
Four ages of sand
- Telescope 1608
- Microscope 1678 (Cell theory, etc)
- Computer chip 1961 (storing large amounts of information)
- Fiber optics 1980s(GPS, sharing genome sequencing info and other info, communications)
Analogy
A comparison between two things, typically on the basis of their structure and for the purpose of explanation or clarification.
Binomen
In zoological nomenclature, a binomen, or binominal name, is the name of a species. A binomial name assigned to species, as Canis familiaris for the dog.
Binomial nomenclature
The system of nomenclature using two terms, the first one indicating the genus and the second the species.
Apis mellifera
(Honey bee)
Biogeography
The branch of biology that deals with the geographical distribution of plants and animals.
Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
(1707-1788)
Buffons Law: as organisms move, they adapt to their environments (therefore appearance changes)
Australia split before mammals- so all marsupials inhabit the continent South America: same situation- large birds (until North America and the birds were wiped out) Pangea (all earth)
Catastrophe Theory
Proposed by George Cuvier (1769-1832)
He also proposed the extinction theory
Think Noah’s Arc, New species were created after catastrophic floods
Cell Theory
The idea that all living things are composed of cells, cells are basic units of structure and function, and new cells are produced from existing cells. proposed in 1838 by Matthias Schleiden and by Theodor Schwann
– The basic unit of all organisms
is the cell
– Individual cells have all the
characteristics of life and
– All cell come from the division of
other cells
Chronological Prediction
Fortelling the future based on past events
Compare to LOGICAL prediction
Cladogram
and
Cladistics
A branching diagram showing the cladistic relationship between a number of species
The modern application of taxonomy to identify evolutionary relationships. Cladistic taxonomy traces the evolution of specific characters (traits), and aims to define groups of related species (clades) based on the extent to which these features diverge from those of ancestral forms
Common Ancestry
One of Darwin’s 5 theories
- LUCA (Lowest Universal Common Ancestor)
- All species descend from one species, change via evolution
Evidence for this:
- Comparative anatomy (convergent and divergent evolut)
- Comparative embryology
- Vestigial Structures
- Molecules (changes in amino acid sequences can give info about ancestors)
Constancy of Species
One of Darwin’s 5 theories
- Fossils (In the carboniferous era, coal deposits were formed because there were no organisms to break down plants)
- Extinction
- Transitional forms (observing different forms to adjust to surroundings)
- (Vestigial structures)
Control
A scientific control is an experiment or observation designed to minimize the effects of variables other than the single independent variable. This increases the reliability of the results, often through a comparison between control measurements and the other measurements. Scientific controls are a part of the scientific method.
Convergent Evolution
Convergent evolution describes the acquisition of the same biological trait in unrelated lineages.
The wing is a classic example of convergent evolution in action. Flying insects, birds, and bats have all evolved the capacity of flight independently. They have “converged” on this useful trait.
Cuvier (Georges)
1769-1832
He collected fossils and put whole organisms together
He gives the concepts of extinction (finding organisms that no longer exist)
and also of the catastrophe theory (think Noah’s Arc)
Darwin (Charles)
1809-1882
Recognized that in a population of organisms, there are variations
Some traits are better suited for the environment
Comes up with NATURAL SELECTION as well as his four other theories; Common ancestory, no constancy of species, gradual changes, multiplication of species
Huge database of animals to which this theory applies
The Beagle for 5 years to the Galapagos Islands*
Did not follow through with medical or church careers
Naturalist/biologist household
Darwin (Erasmus)
Grandfather of Charles Darwin, he translated Linneaus taxonomy into English
He also writes a poem called the temple of nature, which illustrates the gradual changes taking place in different species
1731-1802
Deduction
Deduction (from the general to the
specific): All insects have wings
and this animal is an insect. This
animal has wings.
Logically strong
Descent with modification
Evolution is defined as descent with modification.
An offspring of an organism that has been modified in some way
Divergent evolution
(1) The process by which an interbreeding population or species diverges into two or more descendant species, resulting in once similar or related species to become more and more dissimilar.
(2) The process of tracing back two or more species to their common ancestor that indicate how they have diversified and diverged.
Domain
In taxonomy, domain is below life and above kingdom
Bacteria, Archea, Eukarya (3 domains of life)
Empirical Observation
Observation based on experience; determined from experimental data, as opposed to theoretical.
Physical Science is based on empirical observation.
Essentialism
The scala natura is greatly based on essentialism
There is no change in organisms and importance levels
400 BCE – 450: Greek and Roman ages
Eukaryotes
A eukaryote is an organism whose cells contain complex structures enclosed within membranes.
Eukaryotes may more formally be referred to as the taxon Eukarya or Eukaryota. The defining membrane-bound structure that sets eukaryotic cells apart from prokaryotic cells is the nucleus, or nuclear envelope, within which the genetic material is carried.
Evolutionary Tree
A phylogenetic tree or evolutionary tree is a branching diagram or “tree” showing the inferred evolutionary relationships among various biological species or other entities based upon similarities and differences in their physical and/or genetic characteristics. The taxa joined together in the tree are implied to have descended from a common ancestor.
Extinction
Theory by Georges Cuvier (based on fossil records and the catastrophe theory)
One of Darwin’s Five theories (also observing fossils)
The state or process of ceasing or causing an organism to cease to exist.
Fact
The truth- as opposed to an interpretation or something that is not true.
Fitness
Fitness is defined by the number of genes you put into the next generation: more genes, more fitness
Survival, reproduction
Fossil Record
the accumulation of fossils and related geological data that give us clues about the past and its taxonomic history.
Charles Darwin had a large fossil record.
Germ Theory
Pasteur (1822-1895)
The germ theory of disease, also called the pathogenic theory of medicine, is a theory that proposes that microorganisms are the cause of many diseases. Although highly controversial when first proposed, germ theory was validated in the late 19th century and is now a fundamental part of modern medicine and clinical microbiology, leading to such important innovations as antibiotics and hygienic practices.
The ancient historical view was that disease was spontaneously generated instead of being created by microorganisms that grow by reproduction
Historical Narrative
Natural science is based on historical narrative
Historical writing in a story based form
Homology
Homology forms the basis of organization for comparative biology. In 1843, Richard Owen defined homology as “the same organ in different animals under every variety of form and function”. Organs as different as a bat’s wing, a seal’s flipper, a cat’s paw and a human hand have a common underlying structure of bones and muscles. Owen reasoned that there must be a common structural plan for all vertebrates, as well as for each class of vertebrates.
Forelimbs in mammals provide one example of homology.
Homologous traits of organisms are due to sharing a common ancestor, and such traits often have similar embryological origins and development. This is contrasted with analogous traits.
Homoplasy (Analogous)
Similarity in species of different ancestry that is the result of convergent evolution is called homoplasy.
similarities between organisms that were not present in the last common ancestor of the taxa being considered but rather evolved separately.
An example of analogous traits would be the wings of bats and birds, which evolved separately but both of which evolved from the vertebrate forelimb and therefore have similar early embryology.
Huxley(Julian)
(1887-1975)
Synthetic theory of evolution (combined the work of Darwin and Mendel)
Population genetics
and natural selection
Hypothesis
A supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation.
Induction
Inductive reasoning is probabilistic; it only states that, given the premises, the conclusion is probable.
Lamarck (Jean-Baptiste)
(1744-1829)
Transmutation of Species
He was unaware that genes were predetermined-
He believed traits were passed on based on the function of the organism (giraffe necks)
One species would transmutate into another based on these changes
Law
A statement of fact, deduced from observation, to the effect that a particular natural or scientific phenomenon always occurs if certain conditions are present
Leclerc (George-Louis-Buffon)
(1707-1788)
Common ancestor
Biogeography
Morphology to adapt in different environments. Noticing similarities in cats in different geographical areas Buffons Law: as organisms move, they adapt to their environments (therefore appearance changes)
Linnean taxonomy
kim paquet came over for good sex
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Castoridae
Genus: Castor
Species: canadensis
The “scientific revolution” 16th – 18th century
Linnaeus – Taxanomic hierarchy
Named genus, species
Linnaeus (Carolus)
Taxonomic
hierarchy
Binomen and
binomial
nomenclature
How to organize the living world
Nested hierarchy* (folder system)
It is importatnt because then predicitons can be made form this system.
Logical Prediction
Not chronological
Lyell (Charles)
(1797- 1875)
Uniformitarian
theory of geological
change
Stratigraphy and the
geological time
scale
Notices that deposits of rock that have eroded have Strata*
Microfossils and fossils
Rocks from different places, noticing changes in fossils Because it happened over a long period of time, the layers of rock could not be created in a few days Questioning the age of the world
Mendel (Gregor)
(1822-1884)
Rediscovered
1900.
Law of
segregation of
characters
Law of
independent
assortment
Pea plant geneticist Inheritable traits are passed through generations in packages (Traits from both parents are passed to the next, only one is visible) Some packages sort independently: color vs. size Concept later called diploid (and haploid)
Austrian Monk, had a copy of origin of species but they never met-
Modern Biology
19th century: Modern biology
Cell theory
(Schleiden and Schwann – 1860)
– The basic unit of all organisms
is the cell
– Individual cells have all the
characteristics of life and
– All cell come from the division of
other cells
Mendel
20th Century
Huxley
Cellular respiration, ATP and mitochondia (1930-1950)
Ecology (1940’s)
DNA is the genetic materials (1943)
DNA structure (1953)
Gene regulation (1961)
Genetic code (1960’s)
Recombinant DNA experiments (1970’s)
Cloning of a mammal (1997)
Human genome sequence (2000)
Molecular biology
and biochemistry
Genetics
Cell biology
Physiology
Developmental
biology
Morphology
Evolution and
systemic biology
Ecology
Behavioural biology
Nutrition
Disease mechanisms
Pharmacology
Genomics
Proteomics
Ages of Sand (18-19th century)
Natural Sciences
Animate objects
More than physical and
chemical laws (Genetics)
Not Universal
Based on historical
narratives
Induction most used
method
In the early 1930’s, natural sciences were unable to explain anything using math & empirical observtion.
Natural Selection
First demonstration of gene frequency varying over time- because of changes in the environment. (In a natural population)
Industrial Melanism: The prevalence of dark-colored varieties of animals (esp. moths) in industrial areas where they are better camouflaged against predators than paler forms
Null hypothesis
The hypothesis that there is no significant difference between specified populations, any observed difference being due to sampling or experimental error
No difference
Organicists
Organicism: The doctrine that everything in nature has an organic basis or is part of an organic whole
Organicists (1930) – vital force replaced by
genetic program and the importance of
emergence (swarm behaviour)
Pasteur (Louis)
Life from life
not
spontaneous
generation
Germ theory
Pasteurization
First rabies and anthrax vaccines
Flask experiment: one had bacteria and the other did not
Physical Sciences
Inanimate objects
Physical and chemical
laws
Universal
Physicalists
Physicalism is a philosophical position holding that everything which exists is no more extensive than its physical properties; that is, that there are no kinds of things other than physical
with the
exception of humans all
living things are
machines (Descartes, 17th
century)
Prokaryotes
A microscopic single-celled organism, including the bacteria and cyanobacteria, that has neither a distinct nucleus with a membrane nor other specialized organelles
Kingdom Monera includes all prokaryotes
Proximate causes
The question HOW in a scientific explanation:
Physical science-like
Phenotype – morphology
and behaviour
Mechanical (predictable)
Here and now
Genes in action
Experiments
Sampling error
Experimental component: the more times a sample is taken, the higher the accuracy
Error in a statistical analysis arising from the unrepresentativeness of the sample taken
Scala naturae
The Great Chain of Being
Never changing
God/gods, servants to god, arc-angels, tier 2 angels
Man, Birds & flying animals, Fish, animals, Plants, Soil animals
Hell
400 BCE – 450: Greek and Roman ages
Schleiden and Schwann
Cell theory
(Schleiden and Schwann – 1860)
– The basic unit of all organisms
is the cell
– Individual cells have all the
characteristics of life and
– All cell come from the division of
other cells
Noted the same structure (membrane and nucleus) in all types of organisms
Zoologist: Schwann Botanist: Schleiden
Scientific Revolution
16th-18th century
Culminated in 17th century; period of empirical advances associated with the development of wider theoretical generalizations; resulted in change in traditional beliefs of Middle Ages.
Copernicus (1473-1543) earth not the center of the universe.
Kepler (1571-1630) – planetary motion
Newton (1643-1727) – laws of motion, gravity and thermal conduction
Galileo (1561-1626) – further proof of earth revolving around the sub
Boyle (1627-1691) – behaviour of gases
Pascal (1623-1662) – origins of calculus
Descartes (1596-1650) – geometry
Van Leeuwenhoek (1673) – first microscope,
Harvey(1650’s ) – Anatomy and physiology
Linnaeus (1735) – Systema naturae.
Special creation
Pattern
– Species don’t change
– Each species created
on Oct 23, 4004 BCE
– Species are not old
Process
– A designer of some
sort
Inferior and superior classifications
When did they arrive?
Synthetic theory of evolution
the theory of evolution that fuses Darwin’s concept of natural selection with information from the fields of genetics, mathematics, embryology, paleontology, animal behavior, and other disciplines
Huxley
Taxon (taxa)
A taxonomic group of any rank, such as a species, family, or class
Linnean taxonomy
Taxonomy
The branch of science concerned with classification, esp. of organisms; systematics
Linneaus
Theory
A supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something, esp. one based on general principles independent of the thing to be explained
Every scentific argument is a theory until proven to be universal.
Transitional forms
Transitional fossils (popularly termed missing links) are the fossilized remains of intermediary forms of life that illustrate an evolutionary transition.
Archaeopteryx
lithographica (reptile bird fossil)
Puijila darwini (otter)
Transmutation
Not Lamarck
The action of changing or the state of being changed into another form (species into other species)
No change, gradual change (transformation), dramatic alterations (transmutation)
Transmutation of Species
Transmutation of species was a term used by Jean Baptiste Lamarck in 1809 for his theory that described the altering of one species into another. It was one of the names commonly used for evolutionary ideas in the 19th century before Charles Darwin published On The Origin of Species (1859)
GIraffe necks
ENVIRONMENTAL TRANSFORMATION
Modified essentialism: improvement with each generation
Ultimate causes
Natural science like
Genotype - Genes and
history
Variable (probabilistic)
Evolutionary past
Changes in genetic
programs
Historical narratives
The evolutionary factors responsible for the origin, state of being, or purpose of a biological system.
Uniformitarian theory
In the philosophy of naturalism, uniformitarianism assumes that the same natural laws and processes that operate in the universe now, have always operated in the universe in the past and apply everywhere in the universe.
Charles Lyell
Uniformitation theory of geological change
The idea that geological processes have remained uniform over time and that slight changes over long periods can have large-scale consequences; proposed by James Hutton in 1795 and reÞned by Charles Lyell during the 1800s.
Vestigial structure
Degenerate, rudimentary, or atrophied, having become functionless in the course of evolution
appendix (not really)
Nictatating membrane (eye duct)
goosebumps
Vitalists
The theory that the phenomena of organic life cannot be explained by the properties of physical matter alone, and that consequently they must be due to some nonphysical vital principle. Attempts to define such a principle have been vague and various.
physical
and chemical laws apply
but living things have a
vital force (essence)
Philosophers:
Hippocrates
Aristototle
Theophrastus
400 BCE – 450: Greek and Roman ages
H: one of the first philosophers to observe and record human condition and biology
A: Aristotle: student of H. Kept record of all organisms seen as they travelled across europe (inferior/superior classifications)
T:Inventory of plants for medicinal benefits and food, compendium of pharmaceutical plants
Byzantium
– Al-Jahiz (781-869)
– Al-Dinawari (826-896)
– Avicenna (980-1037
– Al-Baitar (d. 1248)
– Abu al-Abbas al Nabati
(13th century)
450-16th century: Medieval ages
Islam was not affected by the plague
Jahiz: improve animals by breeding programs for agricultural stock
Dinawari: Adds plants and studies the growth of plants and recognized similarities in plants life cycles
Avicenna: Takes all medicinal knowledge of Greek, Roman, Islamic, used to the end of the 1600s
Al-Baitar: Adds plants, dosages and their uses, pharmacology, used to 18h century 1700s
Abu: Developing scientific method- split something in two, change one and observe.
Crusades (europe raids)
Taxonomy (other)
Animalia, Plantae, Fungi: cell-to-cell communication strategies. Multicellular organisms
Protista, Monera: No differentiation of function between cells (Except reproductive cells) Monera: prokaryotes
Plantae: Autotroph (cell walls cellulose) Fungi, Animalia: Heterotroph (cell walls (chitin) Fungi: digest externally, absorb. Animalia: consumed, break down internally (cell membrane)
Bacteria & Archea (formerly Monera) Archea: no oxygen, harsh environments (heat, methane, acidic) Lowest universal common ancestor Archea-like organisms found in meteorites (the oceans) Kingdoms v. domains
Finalism
Gradual change to create a better organism)
A teleology is any philosophical account which holds that final causes exist in nature, meaning that design and purpose analogous to that found in human actions are inherent also in the rest of nature.
Wallace
(1823-1913)
Both recognize that in a population of organisms, there are differences (variation in species) Some individuals have traits better suited to the environment Uses concepts of artificial selection (chickens, pigeons)
Came to same theory as Darwin
Scientific Investigation
Observations
Questions of how and why
Hypothesis
Test (experiment)
Conclusion
Additional experimental components
Controls
Control of variables
Sampling error
Repeat the test
Anatomy of a scientific explanation (theory)
Two parts
– Pattern
– Mechanism or process
Questions to be asked
– What?
– How (proximate cause)? or Why (ultimate
causes)?
Distribution of scientific facts
Journal selection
Manuscript preparation
Peer Review
Revision
Publication
Sources
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
