Biology, Biologists, and Biosciences

Question 1

Ages of Sand (4)

Answer 1

Douglas Adams 1952-2001
Four ages of sand

• Telescope 1608
• Microscope 1678 (Cell theory, etc)
• Computer chip 1961 (storing large amounts of information)
• Fiber optics 1980s(GPS, sharing genome sequencing info and other info, communications)

Question 2

Analogy

Answer 2

A comparison between two things, typically on the basis of their structure and for the purpose of explanation or clarification.

Question 3

Binomen

Answer 3

In zoological nomenclature, a binomen, or binominal name, is the name of a species. A binomial name assigned to species, as Canis familiaris for the dog.

Question 4

Binomial nomenclature

Answer 4

The system of nomenclature using two terms, the first one indicating the genus and the second the species.

Apis mellifera
(Honey bee)

Question 5

Biogeography

Answer 5

The branch of biology that deals with the geographical distribution of plants and animals.

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
(1707-1788)

Buffons Law: as organisms move, they adapt to their environments (therefore appearance changes)

Australia split before mammals- so all marsupials inhabit the continent
South America: same situation- large birds (until North America and the birds 
were wiped out)
Pangea (all earth)

Question 6

Catastrophe Theory

Answer 6

Proposed by George Cuvier (1769-1832)

He also proposed the extinction theory

Think Noah’s Arc, New species were created after catastrophic floods

Question 7

Cell Theory

Answer 7

The idea that all living things are composed of cells, cells are basic units of structure and function, and new cells are produced from existing cells. proposed in 1838 by Matthias Schleiden and by Theodor Schwann

– The basic unit of all organisms
is the cell
– Individual cells have all the
characteristics of life and
– All cell come from the division of
other cells

Question 8

Chronological Prediction

Answer 8

Fortelling the future based on past events

Compare to LOGICAL prediction

Question 9

Cladogram

and

Cladistics

Answer 9

A branching diagram showing the cladistic relationship between a number of species

The modern application of taxonomy to identify evolutionary relationships. Cladistic taxonomy traces the evolution of specific characters (traits), and aims to define groups of related species (clades) based on the extent to which these features diverge from those of ancestral forms

Question 10

Common Ancestry

Answer 10

One of Darwin’s 5 theories

• LUCA (Lowest Universal Common Ancestor)
• All species descend from one species, change via evolution

Evidence for this:

• Comparative anatomy (convergent and divergent evolut)
• Comparative embryology
• Vestigial Structures
• Molecules (changes in amino acid sequences can give info about ancestors)

Question 11

Constancy of Species

Answer 11

One of Darwin’s 5 theories

• Fossils (In the carboniferous era, coal deposits were formed because there were no organisms to break down plants)
• Extinction
• Transitional forms (observing different forms to adjust to surroundings)
• (Vestigial structures)

Question 12

Control

Answer 12

A scientific control is an experiment or observation designed to minimize the effects of variables other than the single independent variable. This increases the reliability of the results, often through a comparison between control measurements and the other measurements. Scientific controls are a part of the scientific method.

Question 13

Convergent Evolution

Answer 13

Convergent evolution describes the acquisition of the same biological trait in unrelated lineages.
The wing is a classic example of convergent evolution in action. Flying insects, birds, and bats have all evolved the capacity of flight independently. They have “converged” on this useful trait.

Question 14

Cuvier (Georges)

Answer 14

1769-1832

He collected fossils and put whole organisms together

He gives the concepts of extinction (finding organisms that no longer exist)

and also of the catastrophe theory (think Noah’s Arc)

Question 15

Darwin (Charles)

Answer 15

1809-1882

Recognized that in a population of organisms, there are variations

Some traits are better suited for the environment

Comes up with NATURAL SELECTION as well as his four other theories; Common ancestory, no constancy of species, gradual changes, multiplication of species

Huge database of animals to which this theory applies

The Beagle for 5 years to the Galapagos Islands*

Did not follow through with medical or church careers

Naturalist/biologist household

Question 16

Darwin (Erasmus)

Answer 16

Grandfather of Charles Darwin, he translated Linneaus taxonomy into English

He also writes a poem called the temple of nature, which illustrates the gradual changes taking place in different species

1731-1802

Question 17

Deduction

Answer 17

Deduction (from the general to the
specific): All insects have wings
and this animal is an insect. This
animal has wings.

Logically strong

Question 18

Descent with modification

Answer 18

Evolution is defined as descent with modification.

An offspring of an organism that has been modified in some way

Question 19

Divergent evolution

Answer 19

(1) The process by which an interbreeding population or species diverges into two or more descendant species, resulting in once similar or related species to become more and more dissimilar.

(2) The process of tracing back two or more species to their common ancestor that indicate how they have diversified and diverged.

Question 20

Domain

Answer 20

In taxonomy, domain is below life and above kingdom

Bacteria, Archea, Eukarya (3 domains of life)

Question 21

Empirical Observation

Answer 21

Observation based on experience; determined from experimental data, as opposed to theoretical.

Physical Science is based on empirical observation.

Question 22

Essentialism

Answer 22

The scala natura is greatly based on essentialism

There is no change in organisms and importance levels

400 BCE – 450: Greek and Roman ages

Question 23

Eukaryotes

Answer 23

A eukaryote is an organism whose cells contain complex structures enclosed within membranes.

Eukaryotes may more formally be referred to as the taxon Eukarya or Eukaryota. The defining membrane-bound structure that sets eukaryotic cells apart from prokaryotic cells is the nucleus, or nuclear envelope, within which the genetic material is carried.

Question 24

Evolutionary Tree

Answer 24

A phylogenetic tree or evolutionary tree is a branching diagram or “tree” showing the inferred evolutionary relationships among various biological species or other entities based upon similarities and differences in their physical and/or genetic characteristics. The taxa joined together in the tree are implied to have descended from a common ancestor.

Question 25

Extinction

Answer 25

Theory by Georges Cuvier (based on fossil records and the catastrophe theory) One of Darwin's Five theories (also observing fossils) The state or process of ceasing or causing an organism to cease to exist.

Question 26

Fact

Answer 26

The truth- as opposed to an interpretation or something that is not true.

Question 27

Fitness

Answer 27

Fitness is defined by the number of genes you put into the next generation: more genes, more fitness Survival, reproduction

Question 28

Fossil Record

Answer 28

the accumulation of fossils and related geological data that give us clues about the past and its taxonomic history. Charles Darwin had a large fossil record.

Question 29

Germ Theory

Answer 29

Pasteur (1822-1895) The germ theory of disease, also called the pathogenic theory of medicine, is a theory that proposes that microorganisms are the cause of many diseases. Although highly controversial when first proposed, germ theory was validated in the late 19th century and is now a fundamental part of modern medicine and clinical microbiology, leading to such important innovations as antibiotics and hygienic practices. The ancient historical view was that disease was spontaneously generated instead of being created by microorganisms that grow by reproduction

Question 30

Historical Narrative

Answer 30

Natural science is based on historical narrative Historical writing in a story based form

Question 31

Homology

Answer 31

Homology forms the basis of organization for comparative biology. In 1843, Richard Owen defined homology as "the same organ in different animals under every variety of form and function". Organs as different as a bat's wing, a seal's flipper, a cat's paw and a human hand have a common underlying structure of bones and muscles. Owen reasoned that there must be a common structural plan for all vertebrates, as well as for each class of vertebrates. ## Footnote Forelimbs in mammals provide one example of homology. Homologous traits of organisms are due to sharing a common ancestor, and such traits often have similar embryological origins and development. This is contrasted with analogous traits.

Question 32

Homoplasy (Analogous)

Answer 32

Similarity in species of different ancestry that is the result of convergent evolution is called homoplasy. similarities between organisms that were not present in the last common ancestor of the taxa being considered but rather evolved separately. An example of analogous traits would be the wings of bats and birds, which evolved separately but both of which evolved from the vertebrate forelimb and therefore have similar early embryology.

Question 33

Huxley(Julian)

Answer 33

(1887-1975) Synthetic theory of evolution (combined the work of Darwin and Mendel) Population genetics and natural selection

Question 34

Hypothesis

Answer 34

A supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation.

Question 35

Induction

Answer 35

Inductive reasoning is probabilistic; it only states that, given the premises, the conclusion is probable.

Question 36

Lamarck (Jean-Baptiste)

Answer 36

(1744-1829) Transmutation of Species He was unaware that genes were predetermined- He believed traits were passed on based on the function of the organism (giraffe necks) One species would transmutate into another based on these changes

Question 37

Law

Answer 37

A statement of fact, deduced from observation, to the effect that a particular natural or scientific phenomenon always occurs if certain conditions are present

Question 38

Leclerc (George-Louis-Buffon)

Answer 38

(1707-1788) Common ancestor Biogeography Morphology to adapt in different environments.
Noticing similarities in cats in different geographical areas
Buffons Law: as organisms move, they adapt to their environments (therefore appearance changes)

Question 39

Linnean taxonomy

Answer 39

kim paquet came over for good sex Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Rodentia Family: Castoridae Genus: Castor Species: canadensis The “scientific revolution” 16th – 18th century Linnaeus – Taxanomic hierarchy Named genus, species

Question 40

Linnaeus (Carolus)

Answer 40

Taxonomic hierarchy Binomen and binomial nomenclature How to organize the living world Nested hierarchy\* (folder system) It is importatnt because then predicitons can be made form this system.

Question 41

Logical Prediction

Answer 41

Not chronological

Question 42

Lyell (Charles)

Answer 42

(1797- 1875) Uniformitarian theory of geological change Stratigraphy and the geological time scale Notices that deposits of rock that have eroded have 
Strata\* 
 Microfossils and fossils
 Rocks from different places, noticing changes in fossils
Because it happened over a long period of time, the layers of rock could not be created in a few days
Questioning the age of the world

Question 43

Mendel (Gregor)

Answer 43

(1822-1884) Rediscovered 1900.  Law of segregation of characters  Law of independent assortment Pea plant geneticist 
Inheritable traits are passed through generations in packages 
(Traits from both parents are passed to the next, only one is visible)
Some packages sort independently: color vs. size 
Concept later called diploid (and haploid) Austrian Monk, had a copy of origin of species but they never met-

Question 44

Modern Biology

Answer 44

19th century: Modern biology Cell theory (Schleiden and Schwann – 1860) – The basic unit of all organisms is the cell – Individual cells have all the characteristics of life and – All cell come from the division of other cells Mendel 20th Century Huxley Cellular respiration, ATP and mitochondia (1930-1950)  Ecology (1940’s)  DNA is the genetic materials (1943)  DNA structure (1953)  Gene regulation (1961)  Genetic code (1960’s)  Recombinant DNA experiments (1970’s)  Cloning of a mammal (1997)  Human genome sequence (2000) Molecular biology and biochemistry  Genetics  Cell biology  Physiology  Developmental biology  Morphology  Evolution and systemic biology  Ecology  Behavioural biology  Nutrition  Disease mechanisms  Pharmacology  Genomics  Proteomics Ages of Sand (18-19th century)

Question 45

Natural Sciences

Answer 45

 Animate objects  More than physical and chemical laws (Genetics)  Not Universal  Based on historical narratives  Induction most used method In the early 1930's, natural sciences were unable to explain anything using math & empirical observtion.

Question 46

Natural Selection

Answer 46

First demonstration of gene frequency varying over time- 
because of changes in the environment. (In a natural population) Industrial Melanism: The prevalence of dark-colored varieties of animals (esp. moths) in industrial areas where they are better camouflaged against predators than paler forms

Question 47

Null hypothesis

Answer 47

The hypothesis that there is no significant difference between specified populations, any observed difference being due to sampling or experimental error No difference

Question 48

Organicists

Answer 48

Organicism: The doctrine that everything in nature has an organic basis or is part of an organic whole Organicists (1930) – vital force replaced by genetic program and the importance of emergence (swarm behaviour)

Question 49

Pasteur (Louis)

Answer 49

Life from life not spontaneous generation  Germ theory Pasteurization First rabies and anthrax vaccines Flask experiment: one had bacteria and the other did not

Question 50

Physical Sciences

Answer 50

Inanimate objects  Physical and chemical laws  Universal

Question 51

Physicalists

Answer 51

Physicalism is a philosophical position holding that everything which exists is no more extensive than its physical properties; that is, that there are no kinds of things other than physical with the exception of humans all living things are machines (Descartes, 17th century)

Question 52

Prokaryotes

Answer 52

A microscopic single-celled organism, including the bacteria and cyanobacteria, that has neither a distinct nucleus with a membrane nor other specialized organelles Kingdom Monera includes all prokaryotes

Question 53

Proximate causes

Answer 53

The question HOW in a scientific explanation: Physical science-like Phenotype – morphology and behaviour  Mechanical (predictable)  Here and now  Genes in action  Experiments

Question 54

Sampling error

Answer 54

Experimental component: the more times a sample is taken, the higher the accuracy Error in a statistical analysis arising from the unrepresentativeness of the sample taken

Question 55

Scala naturae

Answer 55

The Great Chain of Being Never changing God/gods, servants to god, arc-angels, tier 2 angels Man, Birds & flying animals, Fish, animals, Plants, Soil animals Hell 400 BCE – 450: Greek and Roman ages

Question 56

Schleiden and Schwann

Answer 56

Cell theory (Schleiden and Schwann – 1860) – The basic unit of all organisms is the cell – Individual cells have all the characteristics of life and – All cell come from the division of other cells Noted the same structure (membrane and nucleus) in all types of 
organisms
 Zoologist: Schwann Botanist: Schleiden

Question 57

Scientific Revolution

Answer 57

16th-18th century Culminated in 17th century; period of empirical advances associated with the development of wider theoretical generalizations; resulted in change in traditional beliefs of Middle Ages. Copernicus (1473-1543) earth not the center of the universe.  Kepler (1571-1630) – planetary motion  Newton (1643-1727) – laws of motion, gravity and thermal conduction  Galileo (1561-1626) – further proof of earth revolving around the sub  Boyle (1627-1691) – behaviour of gases Pascal (1623-1662) – origins of calculus  Descartes (1596-1650) – geometry  Van Leeuwenhoek (1673) – first microscope,  Harvey(1650’s ) – Anatomy and physiology  Linnaeus (1735) – Systema naturae.

Question 58

Special creation

Answer 58

Pattern – Species don’t change – Each species created on Oct 23, 4004 BCE – Species are not old  Process – A designer of some sort Inferior and superior classifications When did they arrive?

Question 59

Synthetic theory of evolution

Answer 59

the theory of evolution that fuses Darwin's concept of natural selection with information from the fields of genetics, mathematics, embryology, paleontology, animal behavior, and other disciplines Huxley

Question 60

Taxon (taxa)

Answer 60

A taxonomic group of any rank, such as a species, family, or class Linnean taxonomy

Question 61

Taxonomy

Answer 61

The branch of science concerned with classification, esp. of organisms; systematics Linneaus

Question 62

Theory

Answer 62

A supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something, esp. one based on general principles independent of the thing to be explained Every scentific argument is a theory until proven to be universal.

Question 63

Transitional forms

Answer 63

Transitional fossils (popularly termed missing links) are the fossilized remains of intermediary forms of life that illustrate an evolutionary transition. Archaeopteryx lithographica (reptile bird fossil) Puijila darwini (otter)

Question 64

Transmutation

Answer 64

Not Lamarck The action of changing or the state of being changed into another form (species into other species) No change, gradual change (transformation), dramatic alterations (transmutation)

Question 65

Transmutation of Species

Answer 65

Transmutation of species was a term used by Jean Baptiste Lamarck in 1809 for his theory that described the altering of one species into another. It was one of the names commonly used for evolutionary ideas in the 19th century before Charles Darwin published On The Origin of Species (1859) GIraffe necks ENVIRONMENTAL TRANSFORMATION Modified essentialism: improvement with each generation

Question 66

Ultimate causes

Answer 66

Natural science like Genotype - Genes and history  Variable (probabilistic)  Evolutionary past  Changes in genetic programs  Historical narratives The evolutionary factors responsible for the origin, state of being, or purpose of a biological system.

Question 67

Uniformitarian theory

Answer 67

In the philosophy of naturalism, uniformitarianism assumes that the same natural laws and processes that operate in the universe now, have always operated in the universe in the past and apply everywhere in the universe. Charles Lyell Uniformitation theory of geological change The idea that geological processes have remained uniform over time and that slight changes over long periods can have large-scale consequences; proposed by James Hutton in 1795 and reÞned by Charles Lyell during the 1800s.

Question 68

Vestigial structure

Answer 68

Degenerate, rudimentary, or atrophied, having become functionless in the course of evolution appendix (not really) Nictatating membrane (eye duct) goosebumps

Question 69

Vitalists

Answer 69

The theory that the phenomena of organic life cannot be explained by the properties of physical matter alone, and that consequently they must be due to some nonphysical vital principle. Attempts to define such a principle have been vague and various. physical and chemical laws apply but living things have a vital force (essence)

Question 70

Philosophers: Hippocrates Aristototle Theophrastus

Answer 70

400 BCE – 450: Greek and Roman ages H: one of the first philosophers to observe and record human condition and biology A: Aristotle: student of H. Kept record of all organisms seen as they travelled across europe (inferior/superior classifications) T:Inventory of plants for medicinal benefits and food, compendium of pharmaceutical plants

Question 71

Byzantium – Al-Jahiz (781-869) – Al-Dinawari (826-896) – Avicenna (980-1037 – Al-Baitar (d. 1248) – Abu al-Abbas al Nabati (13th century)

Answer 71

450-16th century: Medieval ages Islam was not affected by the plague Jahiz: improve animals by breeding programs for agricultural stock Dinawari: Adds plants and studies the growth of plants and recognized similarities in plants life cycles Avicenna: Takes all medicinal knowledge of Greek, Roman, Islamic, used to the end of the 1600s Al-Baitar: Adds plants, dosages and their uses, pharmacology, used to 18h century 1700s Abu: Developing scientific method- split something in two, change one and observe. Crusades (europe raids)

Question 72

Taxonomy (other)

Answer 72

Animalia, Plantae, Fungi: cell-to-cell communication strategies. 
Multicellular organisms Protista, Monera: No differentiation of function between cells
(Except reproductive cells)
Monera: prokaryotes Plantae: Autotroph (cell walls cellulose)
Fungi, Animalia: Heterotroph (cell walls (chitin)
Fungi: digest externally, absorb. 
Animalia: consumed, break down internally (cell membrane) Bacteria & Archea (formerly Monera)
Archea: no oxygen, harsh environments (heat, methane, acidic)
Lowest universal common ancestor
Archea-like organisms found in meteorites (the oceans)
Kingdoms v. domains

Question 73

Finalism

Answer 73

Gradual change to create a better organism)
 A teleology is any philosophical account which holds that final causes exist in nature, meaning that design and purpose analogous to that found in human actions are inherent also in the rest of nature.

Question 74

Wallace | (1823-1913)

Answer 74

Both recognize that in a population of organisms, there 
are differences (variation in species)
Some individuals have traits better suited to the environment
Uses concepts of artificial selection (chickens, pigeons) Came to same theory as Darwin

Question 75

Scientific Investigation

Answer 75

Observations  Questions of how and why  Hypothesis  Test (experiment)  Conclusion Additional experimental components  Controls  Control of variables  Sampling error  Repeat the test Anatomy of a scientific explanation (theory)  Two parts – Pattern – Mechanism or process  Questions to be asked – What? – How (proximate cause)? or Why (ultimate causes)?

Question 76

Distribution of scientific facts

Answer 76

 Journal selection  Manuscript preparation  Peer Review  Revision  Publication Sources Primary  Secondary  Tertiary