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MCAT > Biology and Behavior (Behavioral Sciences) > Flashcards

Biology and Behavior (Behavioral Sciences) Flashcards

1
Q

Franz Gall

A

Phrenology:

  • Earliest theories that behavior, intellect, and personality might be linked to brain anatomy.
  • Gall believed that psychological attributes could be measured by feeling or measuring the skull.
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2
Q

Pierre Flourens

A

Extirpation (Ablation):

  • Parts of the brain were surgically removed and behavioral consequences were observed
  • Brain had specific parts for specific functions
  • Removal of one part, weakens the entire brain
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3
Q

John Dewey

A
  • 1896 article was seen as inception
  • The article criticized the concept of the reflex arc, breaking the process of reacting to a stimulus in discrete parts
  • Should instead focus on the study of organism as a whole as it functions to adapt to the environment
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4
Q

William James

A

Functionalism:

  • How mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment
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5
Q

Paul Broca

A

Broca’s Area:

  • He found that a man who’d been unable to talk was unable to do so because of a lesion in a specific area on the left side of brain
  • Functional impairments can belinked to brain lesions
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6
Q

Hermann von Helmholtz

A

Speed of nerve impulses:

  • First to measure
  • Measured in terms of reaction time
  • He transitioned psychology into a field of natural science
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7
Q

Sir Charles Sherrington

A

Synapses:

  • First inferred existance of synapses
  • He thought that synaptic transmission was and electrical process, we now know it is a chemical process
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8
Q

Sensory Neurons

A
  • Afferent neurons (Ascend in the cord towards brain)
  • Transmit sensory information from receptors–> spinal cord and brain
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9
Q

Motor neurons

A
  • Efferent neurons (Exit the cord on way to rest of body)
  • Transmit motor information from the brain/spinal cord –> muscles/glands
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10
Q

Interneurons

A
  • Found between other neurons
  • Most numerous type of neuron
  • Located predominantly in brain/spinal cord
  • Linked to reflexive behavior
  • Neural circuits called, Reflex Arcs, control this behavior
  • Interneurons in brain/spinal cord send signals to muscles directly, rather than waiting on brain
  • By the time information has been relayed to the brain, muscles have already responded to the pain
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11
Q

Central Nervous System

(CNS)

A
  • Composed of the brain and the spinal cord
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12
Q

Peripheral Nervous System

(PNS)

A
  • Includes the 31 spinal nerves and 12 pairs of cranial nerves
  • Divided into: Somatic and Autonomic
  • Somatic- Sensory/motor neurons
  • Autonomic-Regulates heartbeat, respiration, glandular secretion, involuntary muscles, body temperature regulation.
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13
Q

Autonomic Nervous System

(Part of the PNS)

A
  1. Parasympathetic Nervous System “Rest-and-Digest”
  • ​Conserves energy
  • Reduces heart rate, constricts bronchi and pupils, manages digestion by increasing peristalsis, contracts bladder, stimulates bile release and saliva flow
  • ACh is responsible
  1. Sympathetic Nervous System “Fight-or-Flight”
  • ​Activated by stress
  • Increases HR, increases BGL, releases epinephrine, dilates pupils, decreases digestion, relaxes bronchi, more blood flow to muscles, stimulates orgasm, stimulates sweating, secretion of adrenaline/noradrenaline
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14
Q

Meninges

A
  • Thick sheet of connective tissue covering the brain
  • Protects brain, keeps it anchored within skull, and resorb cerebrospinal fluid (Aqueous solution in which the brain/spinal cord rest. Produced by specialized cells that line the ventricles.
  • Three layers: Dura (Outermost), Arachnoid, and Pia (Innermost) ​
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15
Q

Forebrain (Prosencephalon)

A
  1. Cerebral Cortex-Complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes
  2. Basal Ganglia- Movement
  3. Limbic System- Emotion and memory
  4. Thalmus- Sensory relay station
  5. Hypothalmus- Hunger/thirst and emotion
  6. Developed last and composed of Telencephalon (cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system) /Diencephalon (forms the thalmus, hypothalmus, posterior pituitary, and pineal)
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16
Q

Midbrain (Mesencephalon)

A
  1. Inferior (auditory input, reflexive reactions to sudden loud noises) and superior (Visual sensory input) colliculi
  2. Sensorimotor reflxes
  3. Above hind brain
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17
Q

Hindbrain

(Rhombencephalon)

A
  1. Metencephalon (pons and cerebellum/myelencephalon (medulla oblongata)
  2. Cerebellum-Refined motor movements (Posture, balance, and coordinated body movements (Alcohol impairs)
  3. Medulla Oblongata-Vital functioning (breathing/digestion)
  4. Reticular Formation-Arousal and alertness
  5. Pons-Lies above the medulla and contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and the medulla
  6. Where brain meets the spinal cord
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18
Q

Cortical Maps

A
  1. Relies on assistance from the patient who is awake/alert
  2. No pain receptors in the brain (only requiring local anesthesia)
  3. Electrically stimulates and records brain activity
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19
Q

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A
  1. Several electrodes are placed on the scalp and broad patterns of electrical activity can be detected/recorded
  2. Noninvasive (used for research on sleep, seizures, and brain lesions)
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20
Q

Regional Cerebral Blood Flow (rCBF)

A
  1. Noninvasive mapping procedure which detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain
  2. Relies on the assumption that when a specific cognitive function activates certain regions of the brain, blood flow to those regions increases
  3. To measure, the patient inhales a harmless radioactive gas
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21
Q

CT

(Computerized Tomography)

A
  • Multiple x-rays are taken at different angles and processed by a computer to cross-sectional slice images of the tissue
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22
Q

PET Scan

(Positron emission tomography)

A
  • Radioactive sugar is injected and absorbed into the body, its dispersion and uptake throughout the target tissue is imaged
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23
Q

MRI

(Magnetic Resonance)

A
  • Uses a magnetic field to interact with hydrogen and map out hydrogen dense regions of the body
  • Dependant on reaction of hydrogen to a magnetic field
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24
Q

fMRI

(Functional magnetic resonance imaging)

A
  • Same base technique as MRI
  • However, specifically measures changes associated with blood flow
  • Useful in monitoring neural activity, since increased blood flow in regions of the brain are typically coupled with neuronal activation
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25
Q

Thalmus (Part of Forebrain)

A
  • Relay station for incoming senory information (all except for smell)
  • After recieving, sorts and transmits to the appropriate cerebral cortex areas
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26
Q

Hypothalmus (Part of the Forebrain)

A
  • Four Fs
  1. Feeding
  2. Fighting
  3. Flighting
  4. (Sexual) Functioning
  • ​Lateral Hypothalmus (LH)- When the Lateral Hypothalmus is destroyed, one Lacks Hunger. Triggers eating/drinking
  • Ventromedial Hypothalmus (VMH)- When the VentroMedial Hypothalmus is destroyed, one is Very Much Hungry. Provides signals to stop eating
  • Anterior Hypothalmus- Controls sexual behavior, regulates sleep and body temperature
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27
Q

Posterior Pituitary (Part of the Forebrain)

A
  • Site of the release of ADH (Vasopressin) and Oxytocin
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28
Q

Pineal Gland (Part of the Forebrain)

A
  • Secretes Melatonin (regulates circadian rhythms)
  • Receives direct signals from the retina for coordination with sunlight
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29
Q

Basal Ganglia (Part of the Forebrain)

A
  • Coordinate muscle movement as they receive info from the cortex and relay info (via extrapyramidal motor system) to brain and spinal cord
  • Extrapyramidal System-gathers info about body position and carries info to the CNS, does not function directly through motor neurons. Makes movements smooth and posture steady
  • Parkinson’s Disease- Destruction of portions of the basal ganglia. Jerky movements/uncontrolled resting tremors. Plays role in schizophrenia and OCD
30
Q

Limbic System (Part of Forebrain)

A
  • Emotion and memory
  • Septal Nuclei- Pleasure center of the brain. Mild stimulation is intensely pleasureable. Association between these nuclei and addictive behavior
  • Amygdala- Defensive/aggressive behavior (fear/rage)
  • Hippocampus- Learning and memory processes, helps consolidate info to form long-term memory and can redistribute remote memories to the cerebral cortex. Communicates with other portions of limbic system through a long projection (Fornix). Anterograde Amnesia- Drastic/irreversible loss of memory for any new information (No new long term memories) . Memory for events that occured prior to injury are intact. Retrograde Amnesia- memory loss of events from before the brain injury
31
Q

Cerebral Cortex (Part of the Forebrain)

A
  • Outer surface of the brain, sometimes called Neocortex meaning most recent brain region to evolve
  • Multiple bumps and folds; Gyri and Sulci which provide increased surface area
  • Frontal Lobe- Composed of the prefrontal cortex and motor cortex.
  1. Prefrontal Cortex- manages executive functions (perception, memory, emotion, impulses, and long term planning). Example of an association area (integrates input from diverse brain regions).
  2. Primary motor cortex (located on precentral gyrus which is just in front of the central sulcus (dividing frontal and parietal lobes))- Voluntary muscle movements and considered a projection area (motor tasks) and can be organized into the motor homunculus.
  3. Broca’s area- speech production
32
Q

Cerebral Cortex (Part of the Forebrain)

Continued……

A
  • Parietal Lobe
    1. ​Somatosensory cortex- Located on the postcentral gyrus (behind the central suculus) involved in somatosensory info processing. This projection area is destination for all incoming sensory info. Spatial processing and manipulation
  • Occipital Lobe
    1. ​Visual cortex (striate cortex)- Sensation and perception of visual info. Learning and motor control
  • ​Temporal Lobe- Auditory complex (sound processing) and the Wernicke’s area (language reception and comprehension). Memory processing, emotion, and language. Speech shadowing- A technique used to research stuttering and speech perception (Requiring successful functioning of the temporal lobe, parietal lobe, and frontal cortex)
33
Q

Contralateral Communication

A
  • One side of the brain communicates with opposit side of the body (Most cases)
34
Q

Ipsilateral Communication

A
  • Hearing!!
  • Cerebral hemispheres communicate with same side of the body
35
Q

Dominant Hemisphere

A
  • Usually the left
  • Manages details (language, logic, math)
  • Letters, words, language related sounds, speech, reading, writing, math, complex voluntary movements
36
Q

Nondominant Hemisphere

A
  • Usually the right!
  • Associated with intuition, creativity, music cognition, spatial processing
  • Sensitive of emotional tone of language, recognizes mood based on visual and auditory cues (communication)
  • Faces, music, emotion, sense of direction
37
Q

Catecholamines

A
  1. Epinephrine (Secreted from adrenal medulla)
  2. Norepinephrine (Low levels associated with depression and high levels associated with anxiety and mania
  3. Dopamine -
  • Movement/Posture, high concentrations are found in the basal ganglia
  • Imbalances play a role in Schizophrenia
  • Dopamine hypothesis of Schizophrenia: Argues that delusions, hallucinations, and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from either too much or too little dopamine (Does not account for all disease findings)
  • Parkinson’s Disease- loss of dopaminergic neurons in basali ganglia
  1. Also named monoamines or biogenic amines
  2. Play important role in experience of emotions
38
Q

Serotonin​

A
  • Monoamine/biogenic amine neurotransmitter
  • Regulates mood, eating, sleeping, dreaming
  • Plays role in depression (undersupply) and mania (oversupply)
39
Q

Gamma Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)

A
  • Produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
  • Stabilizes neural activity in the brain
  • Causes hyperpolariztion of the postsynaptic membrane
  • Brain stabilization
40
Q

Glycine

A
  • Serves as an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS by increasing chloride influx into the neuron
  • Hyperpolarizes the postsynaptic membrane
  • Similar to GABA
  • Brain stabilization
41
Q

Glutamate

A
  • Acts as a neurotransmitter in CNS
  • Excitatory
  • Different than Glycine and GABA
  • Brain excitation
42
Q

Neuromodulators (neuropeptides)

A
  • Peptides involved in neurotransmission
  • Relatively slow and have longer effects on postsynaptic membrane than neurotransmitters
43
Q

Endorphins

A
  • Natural pain killers produced in the brain
  • Most important peptide
  • (Relatives are called Enkephalins)
  • Similar actions to morphine or other opiods
44
Q

Hypophyseal Portal

A
  • Directly connects the hypothalmus and the pituitary gland
45
Q

Anterior Pituitary Gland

A
  • “Master” because it releases hormones that regulate activities of enodrine glands
  • Controlled by the Hypothalmus
  • Secretes various hormones into the bloodstream that travel to other endocrine glands to activate them
  • Located at the base of the brain
46
Q

Adrenal Glands

A
  • Located on top of the kidneys
  1. Adrenal Medulla: Releases Epi/Norepi as part of the sympathetic nervous system
  2. Adrenal Cortex: Produces many hormones called Corticosteroids including Cortisol. Contributes to sexual functioning by producing sex hormones, Testosterone and Estrogen
47
Q

Gonads

A
  • Sex glands of the body (ovaries and testes)
  • Increased levels of testosterone and estrogen because they produce sex hormones in higher concentrations
  • Testosterone and Estrogen increase Libido (contributing to mating behavior and sexual function)
  • High levels of Testosterone lead to increased aggressive behavior
48
Q

Innate Behavior

A
  • Genetically programmed as a result of evolution and are seen regardless of environment
49
Q

Learned Behaviors

A
  • Not based on heredity
  • Based on environment and experience
50
Q

Adaptive Value

A
  • Extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by increasing the evolutionary fitness leading to adaptation through natural selection
51
Q

Nature vs. Nurture

A
  • How much of an individuals behavior is based on genetic makeup and how much is based on environment and experiences
  • Nature: Heredity
  • Nurture: Influence of the environment and physical surroundings on behavior
52
Q

Family Studies

A
  • Genetically related individuals are more similar genotypically than unrelated individuals
  • Limited because family members share genetic and environmental factors
  • Cannot distinguish shared environmental factors from genetic factors
53
Q

Twin Studies

A
  • Comparing rates for traits between monozygotic (MZ; identical) and dizygotic (DZ; fraternal) twins
  • Concordance Rates: Likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait
  • They share the same environment , meaning that differences in MZ and DZ twins reflect hereditary factors
  • Environmental effects can be measured by comparing twins raised together to twins raised apart
  • A personality study showed that MZ twins raised in seperate families were still more similar than DZ twins raised together…….. strong genetic component to personality
54
Q

Adoption Studies

A
  • Compare similarities between biological relatives and the adopted child to similarities between adoptive relatives and the adopted child
  • Adopted children’s IQ is more similar to the biological parents IQ (heritable). Criminal behavior among teenage boys have shown similar pattern of heritability
55
Q

Neurulation

A
  • Begining of the nervous system development (3-4 weeks)
  • The ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow, forming a neural groove surrounded by two neural folds
  • Cells at the leading edge of neural fold are called the neural crest
  • The remainder of the furrow closes to form the neural tube which will ultimately for the CNS
56
Q

Alar Plate

A
  • In the neural tube
  • The alar plate differentiates into sensory neurons and a basal plate which differentiates into motor neurons
57
Q

Neural Tube

A
  • Invaginates and folds on itself many times
  • The embryonic brain begins as three swellings:
  1. Prosencephalon
  2. Mesencephalon
  3. Rhombencephalon
  • The three swellings become five (Becoming mature):
  1. Telencephalon
  2. Diencephalon
  3. Mesencephalon
  4. Metencephalon
  5. Myelencephalon
58
Q

Umbilical Cord

A
  • Attaches the fetus to the uterine wall and placenta
  • The Placenta transmits food, oxygen, and water to the fetus and returns water/waste to the mother
59
Q

Primitive Reflexes

A
  • Infants have a number of these which disappear with age
  • Rooting reflex : Automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek (nipple during feeding)
  • Sucking/swallowing when an object is placed in the mouth (feeding reflexes)
  • Moro Reflex : Infants react to abrubt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms , then slowing retracting the arms and crying (Disappears after 4 months).
  • Babinski Reflex : Causes the toes to spread apart automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated (fanning of the toes)
  • Grasping Reflex: When the infant closes fingers around an object placed in the hand
60
Q

Stranger Anxiety

A
  • A fear and apprehension of unfamiliar individuals at infant ages
  • 7 months-1 year of age
61
Q

Separation Anxiety

A
  • A fear of being separated from the parental figure in infants
  • 7 months- 1 year
62
Q

Parallel Play

A
  • 2 years of age
  • Children will play alongside each other without influencing each other’s behavior
63
Q

Age Three

A
  • At age 3, children have awareness of gender identity, engages in sex-typed play and knows full name
64
Q

Age Five

A
  • Conformity to peers and romantic feelings for others develops
65
Q

Ages 6-12

A
  • Friend circles tend to be of the same sex without expression of romantic feelings
66
Q

Teenage Years

A
  • Become more self-sufficient
  • Express their desire for independance by rebelling against parents
  • Cross-gender friendships
  • Aware of sexual orientation and sexual relationships begin
67
Q

Developmental Milestones

A
  • First 3 years of life
  • Gross motor skills develop in a head-to-toe order, starting with ability to lift head, stabilize trunk, and finally walking
  • Correlation to the development of motor skills and proximity to the center of body (skills developed at the core before extremities)
  • Social skills move from parent-oriented, to self-oriented, to other-oriented
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