Biology and Behavior (Behavioral Sciences)

Question 1

Franz Gall

Answer 1

Phrenology:

• Earliest theories that behavior, intellect, and personality might be linked to brain anatomy.
• Gall believed that psychological attributes could be measured by feeling or measuring the skull.

Question 2

Pierre Flourens

Answer 2

Extirpation (Ablation):

• Parts of the brain were surgically removed and behavioral consequences were observed
• Brain had specific parts for specific functions
• Removal of one part, weakens the entire brain

Question 3

John Dewey

Answer 3

• 1896 article was seen as inception
• The article criticized the concept of the reflex arc, breaking the process of reacting to a stimulus in discrete parts
• Should instead focus on the study of organism as a whole as it functions to adapt to the environment

Question 4

William James

Answer 4

Functionalism:

• How mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment

Question 5

Paul Broca

Answer 5

Broca’s Area:

• He found that a man who’d been unable to talk was unable to do so because of a lesion in a specific area on the left side of brain
• Functional impairments can belinked to brain lesions

Question 6

Hermann von Helmholtz

Answer 6

Speed of nerve impulses:

• First to measure
• Measured in terms of reaction time
• He transitioned psychology into a field of natural science

Question 7

Sir Charles Sherrington

Answer 7

Synapses:

• First inferred existance of synapses
• He thought that synaptic transmission was and electrical process, we now know it is a chemical process

Question 8

Sensory Neurons

Answer 8

• Afferent neurons (Ascend in the cord towards brain)
• Transmit sensory information from receptors–> spinal cord and brain

Question 9

Motor neurons

Answer 9

• Efferent neurons (Exit the cord on way to rest of body)
• Transmit motor information from the brain/spinal cord –> muscles/glands

Question 10

Interneurons

Answer 10

• Found between other neurons
• Most numerous type of neuron
• Located predominantly in brain/spinal cord
• Linked to reflexive behavior
• Neural circuits called, Reflex Arcs, control this behavior
• Interneurons in brain/spinal cord send signals to muscles directly, rather than waiting on brain
• By the time information has been relayed to the brain, muscles have already responded to the pain

Question 11

Central Nervous System

(CNS)

Answer 11

• Composed of the brain and the spinal cord

Question 12

Peripheral Nervous System

(PNS)

Answer 12

• Includes the 31 spinal nerves and 12 pairs of cranial nerves
• Divided into: Somatic and Autonomic
• Somatic- Sensory/motor neurons
• Autonomic-Regulates heartbeat, respiration, glandular secretion, involuntary muscles, body temperature regulation.

Question 13

Autonomic Nervous System

(Part of the PNS)

Answer 13

1. Parasympathetic Nervous System “Rest-and-Digest”

• ​Conserves energy
• Reduces heart rate, constricts bronchi and pupils, manages digestion by increasing peristalsis, contracts bladder, stimulates bile release and saliva flow
• ACh is responsible

1. Sympathetic Nervous System “Fight-or-Flight”

• ​Activated by stress
• Increases HR, increases BGL, releases epinephrine, dilates pupils, decreases digestion, relaxes bronchi, more blood flow to muscles, stimulates orgasm, stimulates sweating, secretion of adrenaline/noradrenaline

Question 14

Meninges

Answer 14

• Thick sheet of connective tissue covering the brain
• Protects brain, keeps it anchored within skull, and resorb cerebrospinal fluid (Aqueous solution in which the brain/spinal cord rest. Produced by specialized cells that line the ventricles.
• Three layers: Dura (Outermost), Arachnoid, and Pia (Innermost) ​

Question 15

Forebrain (Prosencephalon)

Answer 15

1. Cerebral Cortex-Complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes
2. Basal Ganglia- Movement
3. Limbic System- Emotion and memory
4. Thalmus- Sensory relay station
5. Hypothalmus- Hunger/thirst and emotion
6. Developed last and composed of Telencephalon (cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system) /Diencephalon (forms the thalmus, hypothalmus, posterior pituitary, and pineal)

Question 16

Midbrain (Mesencephalon)

Answer 16

1. Inferior (auditory input, reflexive reactions to sudden loud noises) and superior (Visual sensory input) colliculi
2. Sensorimotor reflxes
3. Above hind brain

Question 17

Hindbrain

(Rhombencephalon)

Answer 17

1. Metencephalon (pons and cerebellum/myelencephalon (medulla oblongata)
2. Cerebellum-Refined motor movements (Posture, balance, and coordinated body movements (Alcohol impairs)
3. Medulla Oblongata-Vital functioning (breathing/digestion)
4. Reticular Formation-Arousal and alertness
5. Pons-Lies above the medulla and contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and the medulla
6. Where brain meets the spinal cord

Question 18

Cortical Maps

Answer 18

1. Relies on assistance from the patient who is awake/alert
2. No pain receptors in the brain (only requiring local anesthesia)
3. Electrically stimulates and records brain activity

Question 19

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Answer 19

1. Several electrodes are placed on the scalp and broad patterns of electrical activity can be detected/recorded
2. Noninvasive (used for research on sleep, seizures, and brain lesions)

Question 20

Regional Cerebral Blood Flow (rCBF)

Answer 20

1. Noninvasive mapping procedure which detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain
2. Relies on the assumption that when a specific cognitive function activates certain regions of the brain, blood flow to those regions increases
3. To measure, the patient inhales a harmless radioactive gas

Question 21

CT

(Computerized Tomography)

Answer 21

• Multiple x-rays are taken at different angles and processed by a computer to cross-sectional slice images of the tissue

Question 22

PET Scan

(Positron emission tomography)

Answer 22

• Radioactive sugar is injected and absorbed into the body, its dispersion and uptake throughout the target tissue is imaged

Question 23

MRI

(Magnetic Resonance)

Answer 23

• Uses a magnetic field to interact with hydrogen and map out hydrogen dense regions of the body
• Dependant on reaction of hydrogen to a magnetic field

Question 24

fMRI

(Functional magnetic resonance imaging)

Answer 24

• Same base technique as MRI
• However, specifically measures changes associated with blood flow
• Useful in monitoring neural activity, since increased blood flow in regions of the brain are typically coupled with neuronal activation

Question 25

**Thalmus** (Part of Forebrain)

Answer 25

* Relay station for incoming senory information (all except for smell) * After recieving, sorts and transmits to the appropriate cerebral cortex areas

Question 26

**Hypothalmus** (Part of the Forebrain)

Answer 26

* Four **F**s 1. **F**eeding 2. **F**ighting 3. **F**lighting 4. (Sexual) **F**unctioning * ​**Lateral Hypothalmus (LH)-** When the **L**ateral **H**ypothalmus is destroyed, one **L**acks **H**unger. Triggers eating/drinking * **Ventromedial Hypothalmus (VMH)-** When the **V**entro**M**edial **H**ypothalmus is destroyed, one is **V**ery **M**uch **H**ungry**.** Provides signals to stop eating * **Anterior Hypothalmus-** Controls sexual behavior, regulates sleep and body temperature

Question 27

**Posterior Pituitary** (Part of the Forebrain)

Answer 27

* Site of the release of **ADH (Vasopressin)** and **Oxytocin**

Question 28

**Pineal Gland** (Part of the Forebrain)

Answer 28

* Secretes **Melatonin** (regulates circadian rhythms) * Receives direct signals from the retina for coordination with sunlight

Question 29

**Basal Ganglia** (Part of the Forebrain)

Answer 29

* Coordinate muscle movement as they receive info from the cortex and relay info (via **extrapyramidal motor system**) to brain and spinal cord * **Extrapyramidal System-**gathers info about body position and carries info to the CNS, does not function directly through motor neurons. Makes movements smooth and posture steady * **Parkinson's Disease-** Destruction of portions of the basal ganglia. Jerky movements/uncontrolled resting tremors. Plays role in schizophrenia and OCD

Question 30

**Limbic System** (Part of Forebrain)

Answer 30

* Emotion and memory * **Septal Nuclei-** Pleasure center of the brain. Mild stimulation is intensely pleasureable. Association between these nuclei and addictive behavior * **Amygdala**- Defensive/aggressive behavior (fear/rage) * **Hippocampus-** Learning and memory processes, helps consolidate info to form long-term memory and can redistribute remote memories to the cerebral cortex. Communicates with other portions of limbic system through a long projection (**Fornix**). **Anterograde Amnesia-** Drastic/irreversible loss of memory for any new information (No new long term memories) . Memory for events that occured prior to injury are intact. **Retrograde Amnesia-** memory loss of events from before the brain injury

Question 31

**Cerebral Cortex** (Part of the Forebrain)

Answer 31

* Outer surface of the brain, sometimes called **Neocortex** meaning most recent brain region to evolve * Multiple bumps and folds; **Gyri** and **Sulci** which provide increased surface area * **Frontal Lobe-** Composed of the prefrontal cortex and motor cortex. 1. **Prefrontal Cortex-** manages executive functions (perception, memory, emotion, impulses, and long term planning). Example of an **association area** (integrates input from diverse brain regions). 2. **Primary motor cortex (located on precentral gyrus which is just in front of the central sulcus (dividing frontal and parietal lobes))-** Voluntary muscle movements and considered a **projection area** (motor tasks) and can be organized into the **motor homunculus.** 3. **Broca's area-** speech production

Question 32

**Cerebral Cortex** (Part of the Forebrain) ## Footnote Continued......

Answer 32

* **Parietal Lobe** 1. **​Somatosensory cortex-** Located on the **postcentral gyrus** (behind the central suculus) involved in somatosensory info processing. This projection area is destination for all incoming sensory info. Spatial processing and manipulation * **Occipital Lobe** 1. **​Visual cortex (striate cortex)-** Sensation and perception of visual info. Learning and motor control * ​**Temporal Lobe- Auditory complex** (sound processing) and the **Wernicke's area** (language reception and comprehension). Memory processing, emotion, and language. **Speech shadowing-** A technique used to research stuttering and speech perception (Requiring successful functioning of the temporal lobe, parietal lobe, and frontal cortex)

Question 33

**Contralateral Communication**

Answer 33

* One side of the brain communicates with opposit side of the body (Most cases)

Question 34

**Ipsilateral Communication**

Answer 34

* Hearing!! * Cerebral hemispheres communicate with same side of the body

Question 35

**Dominant Hemisphere**

Answer 35

* Usually the left * Manages details (language, logic, math) * Letters, words, language related sounds, speech, reading, writing, math, complex voluntary movements

Question 36

**Nondominant Hemisphere**

Answer 36

* Usually the right! * Associated with intuition, creativity, music cognition, spatial processing * Sensitive of emotional tone of language, recognizes mood based on visual and auditory cues (communication) * Faces, music, emotion, sense of direction

Question 37

**Catecholamines**

Answer 37

1. **Epinephrine** (Secreted from adrenal medulla) 2. **Norepinephrine** (Low levels associated with depression and high levels associated with anxiety and mania 3. **Dopamine** - * Movement/Posture, high concentrations are found in the basal ganglia * Imbalances play a role in **Schizophrenia** * **Dopamine hypothesis of Schizophrenia:** Argues that delusions, hallucinations, and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from either too much or too little dopamine (Does not account for all disease findings) * **Parkinson's Disease-** loss of dopaminergic neurons in basali ganglia 1. Also named **monoamines** or **biogenic amines** 2. Play important role in experience of emotions

Question 38

**Serotonin​**

Answer 38

* Monoamine/biogenic amine neurotransmitter * Regulates mood, eating, sleeping, dreaming * Plays role in depression (undersupply) and mania (oversupply)

Question 39

**Gamma Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)**

Answer 39

* Produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials * Stabilizes neural activity in the brain * Causes hyperpolariztion of the postsynaptic membrane * Brain stabilization

Question 40

**Glycine**

Answer 40

* Serves as an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS by increasing chloride influx into the neuron * Hyperpolarizes the postsynaptic membrane * Similar to GABA * Brain stabilization

Question 41

**Glutamate**

Answer 41

* Acts as a neurotransmitter in CNS * Excitatory * Different than Glycine and GABA * Brain excitation

Question 42

**Neuromodulators (neuropeptides)**

Answer 42

* Peptides involved in neurotransmission * Relatively slow and have longer effects on postsynaptic membrane than neurotransmitters

Question 43

**Endorphins**

Answer 43

* Natural pain killers produced in the brain * Most important peptide * (Relatives are called **Enkephalins**) * Similar actions to morphine or other opiods

Question 44

**Hypophyseal Portal**

Answer 44

* Directly connects the hypothalmus and the pituitary gland

Question 45

**Anterior Pituitary Gland**

Answer 45

* "Master" because it releases hormones that regulate activities of enodrine glands * Controlled by the **Hypothalmus** * Secretes various hormones into the bloodstream that travel to other endocrine glands to activate them * Located at the base of the brain

Question 46

**Adrenal Glands**

Answer 46

* Located on top of the kidneys 1. **Adrenal Medulla:** Releases Epi/Norepi as part of the sympathetic nervous system 2. **Adrenal Cortex:** Produces many hormones called **Corticosteroids** including **Cortisol.** Contributes to sexual functioning by producing sex hormones, **Testosterone** and **Estrogen**

Question 47

**Gonads**

Answer 47

* Sex glands of the body (ovaries and testes) * Increased levels of testosterone and estrogen because they produce sex hormones in higher concentrations * Testosterone and Estrogen increase **Libido (contributing to mating behavior and sexual function)** * High levels of Testosterone lead to increased aggressive behavior

Question 48

**Innate Behavior**

Answer 48

* Genetically programmed as a result of evolution and are seen regardless of environment

Question 49

**Learned Behaviors**

Answer 49

* Not based on heredity * Based on environment and experience

Question 50

**Adaptive Value**

Answer 50

* Extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by increasing the evolutionary fitness leading to **adaptation** through **natural selection**

Question 51

**Nature vs. Nurture**

Answer 51

* How much of an individuals behavior is based on genetic makeup and how much is based on environment and experiences * **Nature:** Heredity * **Nurture:** Influence of the environment and physical surroundings on behavior

Question 52

**Family Studies**

Answer 52

* Genetically related individuals are more similar genotypically than unrelated individuals * Limited because family members share genetic and environmental factors * Cannot distinguish shared environmental factors from genetic factors

Question 53

**Twin Studies**

Answer 53

* Comparing rates for traits between **monozygotic (MZ; identical)** and **dizygotic (DZ; fraternal)** twins * **Concordance Rates:** Likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait * They share the same environment , meaning that differences in MZ and DZ twins reflect hereditary factors * Environmental effects can be measured by comparing twins raised together to twins raised apart * A personality study showed that MZ twins raised in seperate families were still more similar than DZ twins raised together........ strong genetic component to personality

Question 54

**Adoption Studies**

Answer 54

* Compare similarities between biological relatives and the adopted child to similarities between adoptive relatives and the adopted child * Adopted children's IQ is more similar to the biological parents IQ (heritable). Criminal behavior among teenage boys have shown similar pattern of heritability

Question 55

**Neurulation**

Answer 55

* Begining of the nervous system development (3-4 weeks) * The ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow, forming a **neural groove** surrounded by two **neural folds** * Cells at the leading edge of neural fold are called the **neural crest** * The remainder of the furrow closes to form the **neural tube** which will ultimately for the CNS

Question 56

**Alar Plate**

Answer 56

* In the neural tube * The alar plate differentiates into sensory neurons and a **basal plate** which differentiates into motor neurons

Question 57

**Neural Tube**

Answer 57

* Invaginates and folds on itself many times * The embryonic brain begins as three swellings: 1. Prosencephalon 2. Mesencephalon 3. Rhombencephalon * The three swellings become five (Becoming mature): 1. Telencephalon 2. Diencephalon 3. Mesencephalon 4. Metencephalon 5. Myelencephalon

Question 58

**Umbilical Cord**

Answer 58

* Attaches the fetus to the uterine wall and placenta * The **Placenta** transmits food, oxygen, and water to the fetus and returns water/waste to the mother

Question 59

**Primitive Reflexes**

Answer 59

* Infants have a number of these which disappear with age * **Rooting reflex** : Automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek (nipple during feeding) * Sucking/swallowing when an object is placed in the mouth (feeding reflexes) * **Moro Reflex** : Infants react to abrubt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms , then slowing retracting the arms and crying (Disappears after 4 months). * **Babinski Reflex** : Causes the toes to spread apart automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated (fanning of the toes) * **Grasping Reflex:** When the infant closes fingers around an object placed in the hand

Question 60

**Stranger Anxiety**

Answer 60

* A fear and apprehension of unfamiliar individuals at infant ages * 7 months-1 year of age

Question 61

**Separation Anxiety**

Answer 61

* A fear of being separated from the parental figure in infants * 7 months- 1 year

Question 62

**Parallel Play**

Answer 62

* 2 years of age * Children will play alongside each other without influencing each other's behavior

Question 63

**Age Three**

Answer 63

* At age 3, children have awareness of gender identity, engages in sex-typed play and knows full name

Question 64

**Age Five**

Answer 64

* Conformity to peers and romantic feelings for others develops

Question 65

**Ages 6-12**

Answer 65

* Friend circles tend to be of the same sex without expression of romantic feelings

Question 66

**Teenage Years**

Answer 66

* Become more self-sufficient * Express their desire for independance by rebelling against parents * Cross-gender friendships * Aware of sexual orientation and sexual relationships begin

Question 67

**Developmental Milestones**

Answer 67

* First 3 years of life * Gross motor skills develop in a head-to-toe order, starting with ability to lift head, stabilize trunk, and finally walking * Correlation to the development of motor skills and proximity to the center of body (skills developed at the core before extremities) * Social skills move from parent-oriented, to self-oriented, to other-oriented