Biology and Behavior (Behavioral Sciences) Flashcards
1
Q
Franz Gall
A
Phrenology:
- Earliest theories that behavior, intellect, and personality might be linked to brain anatomy.
- Gall believed that psychological attributes could be measured by feeling or measuring the skull.
2
Q
Pierre Flourens
A
Extirpation (Ablation):
- Parts of the brain were surgically removed and behavioral consequences were observed
- Brain had specific parts for specific functions
- Removal of one part, weakens the entire brain
3
Q
John Dewey
A
- 1896 article was seen as inception
- The article criticized the concept of the reflex arc, breaking the process of reacting to a stimulus in discrete parts
- Should instead focus on the study of organism as a whole as it functions to adapt to the environment
4
Q
William James
A
Functionalism:
- How mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment
5
Q
Paul Broca
A
Broca’s Area:
- He found that a man who’d been unable to talk was unable to do so because of a lesion in a specific area on the left side of brain
- Functional impairments can belinked to brain lesions
6
Q
Hermann von Helmholtz
A
Speed of nerve impulses:
- First to measure
- Measured in terms of reaction time
- He transitioned psychology into a field of natural science
7
Q
Sir Charles Sherrington
A
Synapses:
- First inferred existance of synapses
- He thought that synaptic transmission was and electrical process, we now know it is a chemical process
8
Q
Sensory Neurons
A
- Afferent neurons (Ascend in the cord towards brain)
- Transmit sensory information from receptors–> spinal cord and brain
9
Q
Motor neurons
A
- Efferent neurons (Exit the cord on way to rest of body)
- Transmit motor information from the brain/spinal cord –> muscles/glands
10
Q
Interneurons
A
- Found between other neurons
- Most numerous type of neuron
- Located predominantly in brain/spinal cord
- Linked to reflexive behavior
- Neural circuits called, Reflex Arcs, control this behavior
- Interneurons in brain/spinal cord send signals to muscles directly, rather than waiting on brain
- By the time information has been relayed to the brain, muscles have already responded to the pain
11
Q
Central Nervous System
(CNS)
A
- Composed of the brain and the spinal cord
12
Q
Peripheral Nervous System
(PNS)
A
- Includes the 31 spinal nerves and 12 pairs of cranial nerves
- Divided into: Somatic and Autonomic
- Somatic- Sensory/motor neurons
- Autonomic-Regulates heartbeat, respiration, glandular secretion, involuntary muscles, body temperature regulation.
13
Q
Autonomic Nervous System
(Part of the PNS)
A
- Parasympathetic Nervous System “Rest-and-Digest”
- Conserves energy
- Reduces heart rate, constricts bronchi and pupils, manages digestion by increasing peristalsis, contracts bladder, stimulates bile release and saliva flow
- ACh is responsible
- Sympathetic Nervous System “Fight-or-Flight”
- Activated by stress
- Increases HR, increases BGL, releases epinephrine, dilates pupils, decreases digestion, relaxes bronchi, more blood flow to muscles, stimulates orgasm, stimulates sweating, secretion of adrenaline/noradrenaline
14
Q
Meninges
A
- Thick sheet of connective tissue covering the brain
- Protects brain, keeps it anchored within skull, and resorb cerebrospinal fluid (Aqueous solution in which the brain/spinal cord rest. Produced by specialized cells that line the ventricles.
- Three layers: Dura (Outermost), Arachnoid, and Pia (Innermost)
15
Q
Forebrain (Prosencephalon)
A
- Cerebral Cortex-Complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes
- Basal Ganglia- Movement
- Limbic System- Emotion and memory
- Thalmus- Sensory relay station
- Hypothalmus- Hunger/thirst and emotion
- Developed last and composed of Telencephalon (cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system) /Diencephalon (forms the thalmus, hypothalmus, posterior pituitary, and pineal)
16
Q
Midbrain (Mesencephalon)
A
- Inferior (auditory input, reflexive reactions to sudden loud noises) and superior (Visual sensory input) colliculi
- Sensorimotor reflxes
- Above hind brain
17
Q
Hindbrain
(Rhombencephalon)
A
- Metencephalon (pons and cerebellum/myelencephalon (medulla oblongata)
- Cerebellum-Refined motor movements (Posture, balance, and coordinated body movements (Alcohol impairs)
- Medulla Oblongata-Vital functioning (breathing/digestion)
- Reticular Formation-Arousal and alertness
- Pons-Lies above the medulla and contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and the medulla
- Where brain meets the spinal cord
18
Q
Cortical Maps
A
- Relies on assistance from the patient who is awake/alert
- No pain receptors in the brain (only requiring local anesthesia)
- Electrically stimulates and records brain activity
19
Q
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
A
- Several electrodes are placed on the scalp and broad patterns of electrical activity can be detected/recorded
- Noninvasive (used for research on sleep, seizures, and brain lesions)
20
Q
Regional Cerebral Blood Flow (rCBF)
A
- Noninvasive mapping procedure which detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain
- Relies on the assumption that when a specific cognitive function activates certain regions of the brain, blood flow to those regions increases
- To measure, the patient inhales a harmless radioactive gas
21
Q
CT
(Computerized Tomography)
A
- Multiple x-rays are taken at different angles and processed by a computer to cross-sectional slice images of the tissue
22
Q
PET Scan
(Positron emission tomography)
A
- Radioactive sugar is injected and absorbed into the body, its dispersion and uptake throughout the target tissue is imaged
23
Q
MRI
(Magnetic Resonance)
A
- Uses a magnetic field to interact with hydrogen and map out hydrogen dense regions of the body
- Dependant on reaction of hydrogen to a magnetic field
24
Q
fMRI
(Functional magnetic resonance imaging)
A
- Same base technique as MRI
- However, specifically measures changes associated with blood flow
- Useful in monitoring neural activity, since increased blood flow in regions of the brain are typically coupled with neuronal activation
25
Q
Thalmus (Part of Forebrain)
A
- Relay station for incoming senory information (all except for smell)
- After recieving, sorts and transmits to the appropriate cerebral cortex areas
26
Q
Hypothalmus (Part of the Forebrain)
A
- Four Fs
- Feeding
- Fighting
- Flighting
- (Sexual) Functioning
- Lateral Hypothalmus (LH)- When the Lateral Hypothalmus is destroyed, one Lacks Hunger. Triggers eating/drinking
- Ventromedial Hypothalmus (VMH)- When the VentroMedial Hypothalmus is destroyed, one is Very Much Hungry. Provides signals to stop eating
- Anterior Hypothalmus- Controls sexual behavior, regulates sleep and body temperature
27
Q
Posterior Pituitary (Part of the Forebrain)
A
- Site of the release of ADH (Vasopressin) and Oxytocin
28
Q
Pineal Gland (Part of the Forebrain)
A
- Secretes Melatonin (regulates circadian rhythms)
- Receives direct signals from the retina for coordination with sunlight
29
Q
Basal Ganglia (Part of the Forebrain)
A
- Coordinate muscle movement as they receive info from the cortex and relay info (via extrapyramidal motor system) to brain and spinal cord
- Extrapyramidal System-gathers info about body position and carries info to the CNS, does not function directly through motor neurons. Makes movements smooth and posture steady
- Parkinson’s Disease- Destruction of portions of the basal ganglia. Jerky movements/uncontrolled resting tremors. Plays role in schizophrenia and OCD
30
Q
Limbic System (Part of Forebrain)
A
- Emotion and memory
- Septal Nuclei- Pleasure center of the brain. Mild stimulation is intensely pleasureable. Association between these nuclei and addictive behavior
- Amygdala- Defensive/aggressive behavior (fear/rage)
- Hippocampus- Learning and memory processes, helps consolidate info to form long-term memory and can redistribute remote memories to the cerebral cortex. Communicates with other portions of limbic system through a long projection (Fornix). Anterograde Amnesia- Drastic/irreversible loss of memory for any new information (No new long term memories) . Memory for events that occured prior to injury are intact. Retrograde Amnesia- memory loss of events from before the brain injury
31
Q
Cerebral Cortex (Part of the Forebrain)
A
- Outer surface of the brain, sometimes called Neocortex meaning most recent brain region to evolve
- Multiple bumps and folds; Gyri and Sulci which provide increased surface area
- Frontal Lobe- Composed of the prefrontal cortex and motor cortex.
- Prefrontal Cortex- manages executive functions (perception, memory, emotion, impulses, and long term planning). Example of an association area (integrates input from diverse brain regions).
- Primary motor cortex (located on precentral gyrus which is just in front of the central sulcus (dividing frontal and parietal lobes))- Voluntary muscle movements and considered a projection area (motor tasks) and can be organized into the motor homunculus.
- Broca’s area- speech production
32
Q
Cerebral Cortex (Part of the Forebrain)
Continued……
A
-
Parietal Lobe
1. Somatosensory cortex- Located on the postcentral gyrus (behind the central suculus) involved in somatosensory info processing. This projection area is destination for all incoming sensory info. Spatial processing and manipulation -
Occipital Lobe
1. Visual cortex (striate cortex)- Sensation and perception of visual info. Learning and motor control - Temporal Lobe- Auditory complex (sound processing) and the Wernicke’s area (language reception and comprehension). Memory processing, emotion, and language. Speech shadowing- A technique used to research stuttering and speech perception (Requiring successful functioning of the temporal lobe, parietal lobe, and frontal cortex)
33
Q
Contralateral Communication
A
- One side of the brain communicates with opposit side of the body (Most cases)
34
Q
Ipsilateral Communication
A
- Hearing!!
- Cerebral hemispheres communicate with same side of the body
35
Q
Dominant Hemisphere
A
- Usually the left
- Manages details (language, logic, math)
- Letters, words, language related sounds, speech, reading, writing, math, complex voluntary movements
36
Q
Nondominant Hemisphere
A
- Usually the right!
- Associated with intuition, creativity, music cognition, spatial processing
- Sensitive of emotional tone of language, recognizes mood based on visual and auditory cues (communication)
- Faces, music, emotion, sense of direction
37
Q
Catecholamines
A
- Epinephrine (Secreted from adrenal medulla)
- Norepinephrine (Low levels associated with depression and high levels associated with anxiety and mania
- Dopamine -
- Movement/Posture, high concentrations are found in the basal ganglia
- Imbalances play a role in Schizophrenia
- Dopamine hypothesis of Schizophrenia: Argues that delusions, hallucinations, and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from either too much or too little dopamine (Does not account for all disease findings)
- Parkinson’s Disease- loss of dopaminergic neurons in basali ganglia
- Also named monoamines or biogenic amines
- Play important role in experience of emotions
38
Q
Serotonin
A
- Monoamine/biogenic amine neurotransmitter
- Regulates mood, eating, sleeping, dreaming
- Plays role in depression (undersupply) and mania (oversupply)
39
Q
Gamma Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
A
- Produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
- Stabilizes neural activity in the brain
- Causes hyperpolariztion of the postsynaptic membrane
- Brain stabilization
40
Q
Glycine
A
- Serves as an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS by increasing chloride influx into the neuron
- Hyperpolarizes the postsynaptic membrane
- Similar to GABA
- Brain stabilization
41
Q
Glutamate
A
- Acts as a neurotransmitter in CNS
- Excitatory
- Different than Glycine and GABA
- Brain excitation
42
Q
Neuromodulators (neuropeptides)
A
- Peptides involved in neurotransmission
- Relatively slow and have longer effects on postsynaptic membrane than neurotransmitters
43
Q
Endorphins
A
- Natural pain killers produced in the brain
- Most important peptide
- (Relatives are called Enkephalins)
- Similar actions to morphine or other opiods
44
Q
Hypophyseal Portal
A
- Directly connects the hypothalmus and the pituitary gland
45
Q
Anterior Pituitary Gland
A
- “Master” because it releases hormones that regulate activities of enodrine glands
- Controlled by the Hypothalmus
- Secretes various hormones into the bloodstream that travel to other endocrine glands to activate them
- Located at the base of the brain
46
Q
Adrenal Glands
A
- Located on top of the kidneys
- Adrenal Medulla: Releases Epi/Norepi as part of the sympathetic nervous system
- Adrenal Cortex: Produces many hormones called Corticosteroids including Cortisol. Contributes to sexual functioning by producing sex hormones, Testosterone and Estrogen
47
Q
Gonads
A
- Sex glands of the body (ovaries and testes)
- Increased levels of testosterone and estrogen because they produce sex hormones in higher concentrations
- Testosterone and Estrogen increase Libido (contributing to mating behavior and sexual function)
- High levels of Testosterone lead to increased aggressive behavior
48
Q
Innate Behavior
A
- Genetically programmed as a result of evolution and are seen regardless of environment
49
Q
Learned Behaviors
A
- Not based on heredity
- Based on environment and experience
50
Q
Adaptive Value
A
- Extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by increasing the evolutionary fitness leading to adaptation through natural selection
51
Q
Nature vs. Nurture
A
- How much of an individuals behavior is based on genetic makeup and how much is based on environment and experiences
- Nature: Heredity
- Nurture: Influence of the environment and physical surroundings on behavior
52
Q
Family Studies
A
- Genetically related individuals are more similar genotypically than unrelated individuals
- Limited because family members share genetic and environmental factors
- Cannot distinguish shared environmental factors from genetic factors
53
Q
Twin Studies
A
- Comparing rates for traits between monozygotic (MZ; identical) and dizygotic (DZ; fraternal) twins
- Concordance Rates: Likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait
- They share the same environment , meaning that differences in MZ and DZ twins reflect hereditary factors
- Environmental effects can be measured by comparing twins raised together to twins raised apart
- A personality study showed that MZ twins raised in seperate families were still more similar than DZ twins raised together…….. strong genetic component to personality
54
Q
Adoption Studies
A
- Compare similarities between biological relatives and the adopted child to similarities between adoptive relatives and the adopted child
- Adopted children’s IQ is more similar to the biological parents IQ (heritable). Criminal behavior among teenage boys have shown similar pattern of heritability
55
Q
Neurulation
A
- Begining of the nervous system development (3-4 weeks)
- The ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow, forming a neural groove surrounded by two neural folds
- Cells at the leading edge of neural fold are called the neural crest
- The remainder of the furrow closes to form the neural tube which will ultimately for the CNS
56
Q
Alar Plate
A
- In the neural tube
- The alar plate differentiates into sensory neurons and a basal plate which differentiates into motor neurons
57
Q
Neural Tube
A
- Invaginates and folds on itself many times
- The embryonic brain begins as three swellings:
- Prosencephalon
- Mesencephalon
- Rhombencephalon
- The three swellings become five (Becoming mature):
- Telencephalon
- Diencephalon
- Mesencephalon
- Metencephalon
- Myelencephalon
58
Q
Umbilical Cord
A
- Attaches the fetus to the uterine wall and placenta
- The Placenta transmits food, oxygen, and water to the fetus and returns water/waste to the mother
59
Q
Primitive Reflexes
A
- Infants have a number of these which disappear with age
- Rooting reflex : Automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek (nipple during feeding)
- Sucking/swallowing when an object is placed in the mouth (feeding reflexes)
- Moro Reflex : Infants react to abrubt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms , then slowing retracting the arms and crying (Disappears after 4 months).
- Babinski Reflex : Causes the toes to spread apart automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated (fanning of the toes)
- Grasping Reflex: When the infant closes fingers around an object placed in the hand
60
Q
Stranger Anxiety
A
- A fear and apprehension of unfamiliar individuals at infant ages
- 7 months-1 year of age
61
Q
Separation Anxiety
A
- A fear of being separated from the parental figure in infants
- 7 months- 1 year
62
Q
Parallel Play
A
- 2 years of age
- Children will play alongside each other without influencing each other’s behavior
63
Q
Age Three
A
- At age 3, children have awareness of gender identity, engages in sex-typed play and knows full name
64
Q
Age Five
A
- Conformity to peers and romantic feelings for others develops
65
Q
Ages 6-12
A
- Friend circles tend to be of the same sex without expression of romantic feelings
66
Q
Teenage Years
A
- Become more self-sufficient
- Express their desire for independance by rebelling against parents
- Cross-gender friendships
- Aware of sexual orientation and sexual relationships begin
67
Q
Developmental Milestones
A
- First 3 years of life
- Gross motor skills develop in a head-to-toe order, starting with ability to lift head, stabilize trunk, and finally walking
- Correlation to the development of motor skills and proximity to the center of body (skills developed at the core before extremities)
- Social skills move from parent-oriented, to self-oriented, to other-oriented
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