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Nathan Alaina mcat > Biology > Flashcards

Biology Flashcards

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MCAT flashcards
1
Q

Cell Theory

A

1) All living things are composed of cells
2) Cell is the functional unit of life
3) Cells arise from only cells
4) Cells carry genetic info via DNA which is passed from parent to daughter cells.

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2
Q

Are viruses considered living things?

A

No, because they are Acellular, use RNA to carry info, and cannot reproduce on their own

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3
Q

Eukaryotic Cells

A

Cells with membrane-bound organelles, nucleus, can form multicellular organisms

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4
Q

Nucleolus

A

The subsection of the nucleus that synthesizes rRNA

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5
Q

Lysosomes

A

Cell containing hydrolytic enzymes to break down substances.

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6
Q

Endoplasmic Reticulum

A

Organelle which is continuous with the nuclear envelope. Rough ER has ribosome for protein secretion smooth ER is involved in lipid synthesis.

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7
Q

Golgi Apparatus

A

The organelle that modifies, packages, and directs cellular products to specific cellular locations

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8
Q

Peroxisomes

A

Organelle containing hydrogen peroxide which can break down fatty acid chains via beta oxidation. Participate in phospholipid synthesis and pentose phosphate pathway.

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9
Q

Microfilaments

A

composed of actin provides structural protection and can cause muscle contraction via interactions with myosin. They help form the cleavage furrow during cytokinesis

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10
Q

Microtubules

A

Composed of tubulin, they create pathways for motor protons to move along, They contribute to the structure of cilia and flagella, where they are organized into 9+2 ring structure.

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11
Q

Kinesin

A

Motor Protein antereograde

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12
Q

Dynein

A

Motor Protein retrograde

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13
Q

Centrioles

A

found in centrosomes they are involved in microtubule organization into mitotic spindles

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14
Q

intermediate filaments

A

involved in cell/cell adhesion and maintenance of cytoskeletons. They anchor organelles and include keratin and desmin

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15
Q

Parenchyma

A

function parts of the organ often formed by epithelial cells

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16
Q

epithelial cells

A

lining cells, they protect from the outside environment, some can absorb or secrete substances, some participate in sensation. They can be classified by layers (simple, stratified, pseudostratified), or by shape (cuboidal, columnar, squamous)

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17
Q

connective tissue

A

Form the stroma or support structures, secrete substances to form extracellular matrix, consist of bone, cartilage, tendons, adipose, and blood for examples

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18
Q

Prokaryotes

A

cells with no membrane-bound organelles, genetic material stored in single loop of DNA called nucleoid region. Include bacteria and archaea

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19
Q

Archaea

A

extremophiles, can use chemical sources of energy, have similarities to both eukarotes and prokaryotes

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20
Q

Domains of life

A

Archaea, Bacteria, Eukarya

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21
Q

Bacteria shape classifications

A

Cocci (sphere) Bacilli (rod) Spirilli (spiral shaped)

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22
Q

Obligate aerobes

A

need oxygen for metabolism

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23
Q

Obligate anaerobes

A

Cannot survive in an oxygen environment and can only carry out anaerobic metabolism

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24
Q

Faculative anaerobes

A

Survive in environments regardless of oxygen presence, will toggle between metabolic processes based on the environment

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25
Q

Aerotolerant anaerobes

A

Can’t use oxygen for metabolism but can survive in an oxygen-containing environment.

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26
Q

Gram positive bacteria

A

When stained turn purple, they have thick cell walls composed of peptidoglycan and lipoteichoic acid

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27
Q

Gram Negative Bacteria

A

When stained turn pink-red, they have thin walls made of peptidoglycan and an outer membrane with phospholipids and lipopolysaccharides.

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28
Q

Chemotaxis

A

movement in response to chemical stimuli

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29
Q

ETC in prokaryotes

A

occurs in the cell membrane

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30
Q

Prokaryotic ribosomes vs Eukaryotic ribosomes

A

30S/50S vs 40S/60S

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31
Q

Binary fission

A

how prokaryotes multiply, chromosome replication occurs while cell grows in size until the cell wall grows inward along midline to divide cell into two

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32
Q

episomes

A

plasmids that can integrate into the genome

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33
Q

transformation

A

hen genetic material is taken up by a cell from its surroundings

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34
Q

Conjugation

A

transfer of genetic material between bacteria via conjugation bridges. Plasmids can be transferred from F+ to F- cells or a portion of the genome can be transferred from an Hfr cell to a recipient

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35
Q

transduction

A

transfer of genetic material via bacteriophage

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36
Q

transposons

A

genetic elements that can insert into or remove themselves from the genome

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37
Q

bacterial growth pattern

A

lag phase, exponential log phase, stationary phase, death phase

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38
Q

Capsid

A

viral protein coat

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39
Q

positive sense RNA virus

A

can be translated by host cell

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40
Q

negative sense RNA virus

A

complimentary strand must be synthesized and translated by host cell

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41
Q

retroviruses

A

contain single strand RNA from which DNA is made via reverse transcriptase. This DNA is then integrated into the genome

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42
Q

Lytic cycle

A

bacteriophase produces virons until cell lyses

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43
Q

Lysogenic Cycle

A

virus integrates into host genome and reproduces along with the cell. Can stay indefinitely or enter lytic cycle.

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44
Q

Prions

A

infectious misfolded proteins which trigger further misfolding of other proteins

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45
Q

Viroids

A

Small circles of complementary RNA that acts as plant pathogens

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46
Q

Diploid

A

2n

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47
Q

Haploid

A

n

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48
Q

Cell Stages

A

(G1, S, G2, M, G0) All but M can be called interphase

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49
Q

G1

A

Presynthetic gap, cells create organelles, proteins, and increase their size, restriction point occurs to check DNA for quality. This must be passed to proceed to S

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50
Q

S

A

DNA is replicated

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51
Q

G2

A

Further cell growth and replication of organelles in preperation for mitosis. ANother quality checkpoint occurs to go into mitosis

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52
Q

M

A

Mitosis and cytokinesis occurs

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53
Q

G0

A

cell performs its functions without preparing for division

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54
Q

p53

A

functions in the two check points from G1 to S and G2 to M

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55
Q

Mitosis Phases

A

Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis

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56
Q

Prophase

A

Chromosomes condense, nuclear membrane dissolves, nucleoli dissapears, centrioles migrate to cell ends, spindle apparatus begins to form, kinetichores of each chromsome are contacted by spindle fibers

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57
Q

metaphase

A

chromosomes align on the metaphase plate

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58
Q

anaphase

A

sister chromatids separate

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59
Q

telophase

A

nuclear membrane reforms, spindle apparatus disappears, cytosol and organelles then split into two daughter cells via cytokinesis

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60
Q

Meiosis I

A

homologous chromosomes are separated from each other

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61
Q

Prophase I

A

Same events as mitosis prophase but homologous chromosomes intertwine (synapsis) and form tetrads. Crossing over occurs and accounts for Mendels second law (independent assortment)

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62
Q

Metaphase I

A

Homologous chromosomes line up on opposite sides of the metaphase plate

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63
Q

Anaphase I

A

homologous chromsomes are pulled to opposite poles of the cell accounting for Mendel’s first law (segregation)

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64
Q

Telophase I

A

Chromosomes decondense and cell enters interkenisis after cytokinesis

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65
Q

Meiosis II

A

Sister chromatids seperate in a process similar to mitosis

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66
Q

Seminiferous tubules

A

Where sperm is produced in the testes

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67
Q

Sertoli Cells

A

Nourish Sperm

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68
Q

Leydig Cells

A

secrete testosterone and androgens

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69
Q

epididymis

A

where sperm gains motility and is stored

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70
Q

seminal vesicles

A

nourish sperm with fructose and produce alkaline fluid

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71
Q

prostate

A

produces alkaline fluid

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72
Q

bulbourethral glands

A

produce clear fluid that cleans out any remnants of urine and lubricates urethra during arousal

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73
Q

Spermatogenesis

A

four haploid sperm are formed from a spermatogonium

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74
Q

Sperm stages

A

After S stage primary spermatocyte, after meiosis I secondary spermatocyte, after meiosis II spermatids, after maturity spermatozoa

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75
Q

follicles

A

where ova (eggs) are formed

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76
Q

Oogenesis

A

one haploid ovum and a variable number of polar bodies are formed from an oogonium

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77
Q

Ova stages

A

at birth oogonia have undergone replication and are arrested in prophase I, ovulated eggs are secondary oocytes arrested in metaphase II, when fertilize it will complete meiosis II to become a true ovum

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78
Q

Zona pellucida

A

glycoproteins that protect oocyte and help sperm binding

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79
Q

Corona Radiata

A

the layer of cells that adhere oocyte during ovulation

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80
Q

Menstral Cycle Phases

A

Follicular phase, ovulation, lucteal phase, and menstruation

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81
Q

Follicular phase

A

GnRH secretion stimulates FSH and LH which promotes follicle development. Estrogen is released stimulating vascularization and glandularization of the decidua

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82
Q

Ovulation

A

Stimulated by a surge in LH which is triggered by estrogen levels reaching a threshold and switching from negative to positive feedback effects. Results in an egg being released

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83
Q

Luteal Phase

A

LH causes the ruptured follicle to become the corpus luteum which secretes progesterone that maintains the uterine lining. High estrogen and progesterone levels cause negative feedback on GnRH LH and FSH

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84
Q

Menstruation

A

occurs when there is no fertilization. As estrogen and progesterone levels decline the endometrial lining sloughs off and the block on GnRN is removed.

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85
Q

Menopause

A

Menstruation stops and FSH and LH levels rise

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86
Q

Where does fertilization occur

A

The ampulla of the fallopian tube

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87
Q

Acrosomal apparatus

A

Sperm establishes this to inject its pronucleus into the egg

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88
Q

Cortical Reaction

A

Term for the increase metabolic rate after fertilization

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89
Q

Indeterminate cleavage

A

results in cells capable of becoming any organism

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90
Q

determinate cleavage

A

results in cells commited to differentiation

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91
Q

Stages of embryotic brydevelopment

A

Egg, morula, blastula, 2 layered gastrula, 3 layered gastrula

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92
Q

Chorion

A

Contain chorionic villi which penetrate the endometrium and create the interface between maternal and fetal blood

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93
Q

Before the placenta is established what nourishes the embryo

A

yolk sac

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94
Q

amnion

A

produces amniotic fluid

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95
Q

gastrulation

A

process during embryonic development that changes the embryo from a blastula with a single layer of cells to a gastrula containing multiple layers of cells. Gastrulation typically involves the blastula folding in upon itself or dividing, which creates two layers of cells

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96
Q

ectoderm becomes

A

becomes epidermis, hair nail, epithelial cells, anal canal, and the nervous system and lens of the eye

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97
Q

mesoderm becomes

A

musculoskeletal system, circulatory, excretory, gonads, connective tissue,

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98
Q

endoderm

A

epithelial linings of respiratory and digestive system and parts of the pancrease, thyroid, bladder, and distal urinary tract

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99
Q

Neurulation

A

development of therse nervous system it begins after the formation of the three germ layers

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100
Q

Neural Crest Cells

A

become the peripheral nervous system

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101
Q

teratogens

A

substances that interfere with embryonic and fetal development causing defects or even death

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102
Q

morphogens

A

promote cell develpment down a specific line

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103
Q

cell competency

A

the ability of a cell to be influenced by morphogens

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104
Q

Differentiation

A

changes to a cell due to selective transcription

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105
Q

totipotent cells

A

can differentiate into all cell types including placental structures

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106
Q

pluripotent cells

A

differentiate into the three germ layers and their derivatives

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107
Q

multipotent cells

A

can differentiate into specific subsets of cells

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108
Q

reciprocal induction

A

when two tissues induce further differentiation in each other

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109
Q

apoptosis

A

programmed cell death

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110
Q

senescence

A

essentially aging, related to shortening of telomeres

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111
Q

Fetal Hemoglobin

A

higher oxygen affinity that adult heoglobin

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112
Q

umbelical arteries

A

carry deoxygenated blood from fetus to placenta

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113
Q

umbelical veins

A

carry oxygenated blood from placenta to fetus

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114
Q

foramen ovale

A

connects right atrium to left atrium to bypass lungs

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115
Q

ductus arteriosus

A

connects pulmonary artery to aorta bypassing lungs

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116
Q

ductus venosus

A

connects umbelical vein to inferior vena cava bypassing the liver

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117
Q

Dendrites

A

recieve impulses

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118
Q

soma

A

cell body

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119
Q

axon hillock

A

where axon begins and action potentials are initiated

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120
Q

axon

A

long appendage down action potentials move

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121
Q

synaptic bouton or terminal

A

where neurotransmitters are relased into cleft

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122
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

exposed areas of mylenated axons that permit saltatory conduction

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123
Q

oligodendrocytes

A

mylenate the central nervous system

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124
Q

schwann cells

A

mylenate the peripheral nervous system

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125
Q

nerves / tracks

A

bundles of axons

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126
Q

ganglia

A

clusters of cell bodies of neurons of the same type in the peripheral nervous system

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127
Q

Nuclei

A

clusters of cell bodies of neurons of the same type in the central nervous system

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128
Q

Resting membrane potential

A

-70mV, maintained by sodium-potassium ATPase pumps

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129
Q

Astrocytes

A

nourish neurons, form BBB,

130
Q

Ependymal cells

A

line ventricles and produce Cerebrospinal Fluid

131
Q

Microglia

A

phagocytic cells in the CNS

132
Q

Sodium Potassium Pumps

A

pump three sodium out for two potassium in

133
Q

action potential

A

occurs when cell is depolarized to threshold voltage. Sodium channels open until causing influx up to peak where they are inactivated then potassium channels open. Potassium flows out repolarizing cells and stays open until hyperpolarization ocurrs. Then sodium-potassium pumps bring back to resting membrane potential.

134
Q

Absolute refractory period

A

another action potential cannot occur

135
Q

Relative refractory period

A

cell is hyperpolarized, a stronger than usual stimuli can cause an action potential

136
Q

How AP causes Neurotransmitter release

A

AP opens voltage gated Calcium channels whose influx causes fusion of vesicles filled with NT with the cleft leading to their release

137
Q

Peptide Hormones

A

made of amino acids, polar and cannot pass through membranes, bind to extracellular receptors to trigger signaling cascade. Hormones are water soluble, and can freely travel in the blood stream.

138
Q

Steroid Hormones

A

Polar and can pass through membranes, binds to intracellular receptors, or binds to DNA to alter transcription. Must be carried by specific proteins.

139
Q

Amino Acid Derivative Hormones

A

Share features of both peptide and steroid hormones.

140
Q

Direct Hormones

A

Have major effects on non endocrine tissues

141
Q

Tropic Hormones

A

Have major effects on other endocrine tissues

142
Q

Gonadotropin releasing hormone GnRH

A

Promotes the release of FSH and LH

143
Q

Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone GHRH

A

Promotes the release of growth hormone

144
Q

TRH

A

Promotes the release of TSH

145
Q

Follicle Stimulating Hormone FSH

A

Promotes development of ovarian follicles in females and spermatogenesis in males

146
Q

Luteinizing Hormone LH

A

Promotes ovulation in females and testoerone production in males

147
Q

Adrenocorticotropic hormones

A

Promotes synthesis and release of glucocorticoids from adrenal cortex

148
Q

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

A

Promotes synthesis and release of T3 and T4

149
Q

Prolactin

A

Promotes milk production

150
Q

Endorphins

A

decrease perception of pain

151
Q

Growth Hormone GH

A

promotes growth of bone and muscle and shunts glucose to these tissues. Increases blood glucose.

152
Q

Antidiuretic hormone ADH also called vasopressin

A

Secreted in response to low blood volume and increased blood osmolarity and increases reabsorption of water in the collecting ducts of nephrons to increase blood volume

153
Q

Oxytocin

A

promotes uterine contraction, milk ejection, and is involved in maternal bonding. Unusual as it has a positive feedback loop.

154
Q

Where are T3 and T4 produced

A

Follicular Cells of the thyroid

155
Q

Calcitonin

A

Produced by parafollicular cells it decreases plasma calcium concentrations by promoting excretion and decreasing absorption in the gut and promoting storage in bones

156
Q

Parathyroid hormone

A

produced by the parathyroid glands. Increases blood calcium by decreasing excretion, activating vitamin D to increase absorption, promotes resorption of phosphate from bone and reduces the reabsorption of phosphate in kidney. Vitamin D promotes absoprtion of phosphate from gut so they cancel each other out

157
Q

glucocorticoids

A

cortisol and cortisone they increase blood glucose, reduce protein synthesis, inhibit immune system, and are stimulated by ACTH

158
Q

Mineralocorticoids

A

Examples include aldosterone, they promote sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and colecting duct to also increase water reabsorption. Aldosterone is regulated by the renin angiotensin pathway

159
Q

Where are catecholamines released

A

adrenal medulla releases them including epinephrine and norepinephrine

160
Q

Alpha cells

A

produce glucagon which raises blood glucose by stimulating protein and fat degradation, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogensis.

161
Q

beta cells

A

produce insulin which lowers blood glucose levels, stimulates glucose uptake by cells, and promotes glycogen fat and protein synthesis.

162
Q

lambda cells

A

produce somatostatin

163
Q

somatostatin

A

inhibits insulin and glucagon secretion

164
Q

Intestinal and Gastric Hormones

A

secretin, gastrin, and cholecystokinin

165
Q

Atrial natriuretic peptide

A

promotes excretion of salt and water in kidneys in response to stretching of the atria from high water volume in the blood

166
Q

thymosin

A

secreted by the thymus for proper t cell development

167
Q

Pathway of air in respiration

A

nares, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli

168
Q

surfactant

A

reduce surface tension at the liquid-gas interphase of alveoli to prevent it from collapsing

169
Q

visceral pleura

A

lies adjacent to the lung

170
Q

parietal pleura

A

lines the chest wall

171
Q

intrapleural space

A

between visceral and parietal pleura

172
Q

diaphragm

A

thin skeletal muscle that created pressure differential for breathing

173
Q

muscles involved in breathing

A

diaphragm and the intercostal muscles

174
Q

negative pressure breathing

A

pressure differential expands lungs by dropping the preassure within and draing lung from environment. This is achieved by diaphragm contracting.

175
Q

Total Lung Capacity

A

Maximum volume of air remaining in the lungs

176
Q

Residual volume

A

volume of air remaining after fully exhaling

177
Q

vital capacity

A

difference between total lung capaciy and residual volume basically difference between the minimum and maximum amounts of air in the lungs

178
Q

tidal volume

A

air volume moved in a normal breath

179
Q

expiratory reserve volume

A

volume of additional air that can be forcibly exhaled after a normal exhalation

180
Q

inspiratory reserve volumes

A

volume of additional air that can be forcibly inhale after a normal exhalation

181
Q

ventilation is regulated by what brain structure

A

medulla oblongata

182
Q

Pathway of blood from right atria

A

right atria, tricuspid valve, right ventricle, pulmonary valve, pulmonary artery, lungs, pulmonary veins, left atrium, mitral valve, left ventricle, aortic valve, aorta, arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins, venae cavae, right atrium

183
Q

electric conduction in the heart

A

SA, AV, bundle of His, purkinje fibers

184
Q

Systole

A

ventricular contraction where AV valve is closed

185
Q

Diastole

A

heart is relaxed

186
Q

cardiac output

A

heart rate X stroke volume

187
Q

portal system

A

when blood passes through two capillary beds in series

188
Q

hepatic portal system

A

blood travels from gut beds to liver beds

189
Q

hypophyseal portal system

A

blood travels from hypothalamus beds to anterior pituitary beds.

190
Q

renal portal system

A

glomerulus to vasa recta through efferent arterioles

191
Q

Aspects that cause a right shift in the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve. What does this mean?

A

High CO2, High H+, Low pH, high temperature, high 2,3BPG, cause a right shift this means that there is a decreased affinity for oxygen

192
Q

Innate Immunity

A

Defenses that are always active but do not target specific invaders and do not maintain memory. Also called non specific immunity

193
Q

Adaptive Immunity

A

Defenses that take time to activate but are specific and maintain memory they are also called specific immunity

194
Q

Where are immune cells made

A

bone marrow

195
Q

Where are immune responses mounted and B cells activated

A

Spleen and lymph nodes

196
Q

Where is the site of T cell maturation

A

Thymus

197
Q

Leukocytes

A

White blood cells

198
Q

Defensin

A

antimicrobial compound secreted the skin

199
Q

Complement system

A

punches holes in the cell walls of bacteria making them osmotically unstable

200
Q

interferons

A

given off by virally infected cells they help prevent viral replication and dispersion to nearby cells

201
Q

Macrophages

A

ingest pathogens and present them on major histocompatibility complex molecules (MHC)

202
Q

MHC class I

A

Present in all nucleated cells and display endogenous antigens to cytotoxic T-cells (CD8+)

203
Q

MHC Class II

A

Present in some antigen-presenting cells display exogenous antigens to helper T-cells (CD4+)

204
Q

Dendritic cells

A

antigen presenting cells in the skin

205
Q

Natural killer cells

A

they attack cells not presenting MHC molecules which would include virally infected cells and cancer cells

206
Q

Granulocytes

A

include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils

207
Q

Neutrophils

A

ingest bacteria, specifically opsonized bacteria (bacteria marked by antibodies) they follow the bacteria via chemotaxis

208
Q

Eosinophils

A

they release histamine in response to allergic reactions and invasive parasitic infections

209
Q

Basophils

A

used in allergic reactions Mast cells are similar cells found in the skin

210
Q

Humoral Immunity

A

Centered on antibody production by plasma cells which are activated by B-cells

211
Q

Memory B cells

A

lie in wait for second exposure to a pathogen and cal mount a more rapid and vigorous response (secondary response)

212
Q

Cell mediated immunity is centered around white type of cell

A

T cells

213
Q

Helper T Cells CD4+

A

Respond to antigens on MHCII by secreting lymphokines to activate immune difenses.

214
Q

Interferon gamma

A

activates macrophages and secreted by helper T cells 1

215
Q

Helper T cells II

A

activate B cells

216
Q

Cytotoxic T Cells CD8+

A

responds to antigens on MHC-1 and kill virally infected cells

217
Q

Supressor T Cells Treg

A

Tone down immune response after infection

218
Q

Memory T Cell

A

serve similar function to memory B cell

219
Q

Active immunity

A

Activation of B cells to produce antibodies

220
Q

Passive Immnity

A

transfer of antibodies to an individual

221
Q

Thoracic duct

A

connect lymphatic and circulatory system

222
Q

purpose of the lymphatic system

A

equalizes fluid distribution, transports fats and chylomicrons, provides sites for mounting immune responses

223
Q

Accessory organs of digestion

A

salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder

224
Q

enteric nervous system

A

wall of alimentary canal and controls peristalsis. Regulated by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

225
Q

Hormones that support thirst

A

antidiuretic hormone, aldosterone

226
Q

Hormones that support hunger

A

glucagon, ghrelin

227
Q

Hormones that support satiety

A

leptin and cholecytokinin

228
Q

stomach mucous cells

A

synthesize bicarbonate buffer

229
Q

Chief cells

A

secrete pepsinogen, which when activated by stomach acid (HCl) becomes pepsin which works to break down proteins.

230
Q

Parietal Cells

A

secrete HCl and intrinsic factor which is needed for vitamin B12 absorption

231
Q

G-Cell

A

secretes gastrin which increases HCl secretion as gastric motility

232
Q

Dissachardases

A

break down dissarchide into monosaccharaides hey are brush border enzymes

233
Q

Enteropeptidase

A

activates trypsinogen and procarboxypeptidase initiating an activation cascade

234
Q

Secretin

A

stimulates the release of pancreatic juices into the digestive track and slows motility

235
Q

Cholecystokinin

A

stimulates bile release, and pancreatic juices, and deals with satiety

236
Q

Acinar Cells

A

Located in the pancreas and produce bicarbonate, pancreatic amylase, pancreatic peptidases (trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, carboxypeptidase A and B), and pancreatic lipase

237
Q

Jejunum and Ileum function

A

major in absorption via villi and microvilli which contain lacteals and capillary beds

238
Q

Nephron segments in order

A

PCT, descending limb of the loop of Henle, ascending lib of the loop of Henle, DCT, collecting duct

239
Q

PCT

A

site of bulk reabsorption of glucose, amino acids, soluble vitamins, salt, and water. Site of secretion of H+, K+, ammonia, and urea

240
Q

descending limb of the loop of Henle

A

Permeable to water, not salt so water is reabsorbed as it moves down into the more concentrated renal medulla.

241
Q

Countercurrent multiplier system

A

Vasa recta and nephron flow in opposite directions allowing maximal reabsorption of water

242
Q

Ascending limb of the loop of Henle

A

Permeable to salt but not water so salt is reabsorbed.

243
Q

DCT

A

responsive to aldosterone and is the site of salt reabsoption and waste product excreption

244
Q

Collecting duct

A

responsive to aldosterone and antidiuretoc hormone and has variable permeability depending on the bodies need.

245
Q

aldosterone

A

steroid hormone regulated by renin, angiotensin, aldosterone, system that increases sodium reabsorption and thus water reabsorption

246
Q

Antidiuretic hormone

A

peptide hormone synthesized by hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary in response to low blood volume or high blood osmolarity. It increases permeability of collecting duct to increase water reabsorption

247
Q

epidermis Layers

A

Stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, stratum corneum.

248
Q

Melanocytes

A

make melanin

249
Q

Langerhans Cell

A

macrophages in skin. serve antigen presenting cells

250
Q

dermins layers

A

papillary layer, reticular layer

251
Q

merkels cells

A

deep pressure and texture

252
Q

free nerve endings

A

pain

253
Q

meissners corpuscles

A

light touch

254
Q

ruffini endings

A

stretch

255
Q

pacinian corpuscles

A

deep pressure and vibration

256
Q

Skeletal muscle

A

voluntary, striated, polynucleated

257
Q

red twitch fibers

A

carry out oxidative phosphorylation

258
Q

white twitch fibers

A

use anaerobic metabolism

259
Q

Smooth Muscle

A

In respiratory, reproductive, cardiovascular, and digestive systems. Nonstriated, involuntary, and uinucleated.

260
Q

myogenic activity

A

can contract without neural imput found in smooth and cardiac muscle

261
Q

cardiac muscle

A

striated, involuntary, uninucleated/binucleated, myogenic. Connected with intercalated discs that contain gap junctions

262
Q

sarcomere

A

funcitonal unit of muscle consisting of myosin and actin. Troponin and tropomyosin are found on actin and regulate interactions between the filaments.

263
Q

Z line

A

end boundaries of sarcomere

264
Q

M line

A

middle of sarcomere

265
Q

I band

A

contains only thin filament actin

266
Q

H zone

A

contains on thick filament myosin

267
Q

A band

A

The thick filament in its entirety it is the only part of the sarcomere that maintains a constant length

268
Q

T tubules

A

connect to sarcolemma and allow action potential to reach all parts of the muscle

269
Q

what causes the sarcolemma to depolarize

A

acetylcholine from nerves

270
Q

How does calcium cause power strokes

A

calcium binds to troponin which shifts tropomyosin, and exposes myosin binding sites on the actin

271
Q

tetanus

A

prolonged and stronger contraction from frequency summation of twitches

272
Q

creatine phosphate

A

makes ATP in muscles

273
Q

myoglobin

A

oxygen reserve in muscles

274
Q

compact bone

A

provides strength. Dense

275
Q

spongy bone

A

filled with bone marrow

276
Q

Long bones

A

shaft is called diaphyses which flare to form metaphyses and terminate in epiphyses. Epiphysis contains epiphyseal growth plate

277
Q

periosteum

A

connective tissue surrounding bones

278
Q

tendons

A

attach bones to muscles

279
Q

ligaments

A

attach bones to bones

280
Q

how are bones organized internally

A

into rings called lamellae around central canal. Unit is called osteon

281
Q

lacunae

A

between lamellar rings where osteocytes reside. Connected to canaliculi to allow nutrient and waste transfer

282
Q

osteoblasts

A

build bone

283
Q

osteoclasts

A

break down bone

284
Q

Parathyroid hormone bone consequence

A

increases resorption of bone increasing blood calcium and phosphate

285
Q

vitamin D

A

increases resorption of bone increasing blood calcium and phosphate

286
Q

Calcitonin

A

increases bone formation

287
Q

chondrocytes

A

secrete chondrin to make cartilage

288
Q

endochondral ossification

A

how bones are formed from cartilage in fetal life

289
Q

immovable joints

A

fused together to make sutures

290
Q

movable joints

A

contain synovial capsule

291
Q

articular cartilage

A

coating of bones in joints to aid movement

292
Q

antagonistic pairs

A

muscles that serve in opposite functions so that when one contracts the other relaxes.

293
Q

hemizygous

A

having only one allele like the male sex chromosome

294
Q

complete dominance

A

effects of one allele completely mask the effects of others

295
Q

codominance

A

more than one dominant allele

296
Q

incomplete dominance

A

no dominant alleles have an intermediate phenotype when heterozygous

297
Q

penetrance

A

the proportion of the population with a given genotype who express the phenotype

298
Q

expressivity

A

the varying phenotypic manifestation of a given genotype

299
Q

Mendels first law

A

law of segregation. Organisms have two alleles for each gene which segregate during meiosis resulting in gametes carrying one gene.

300
Q

Mendels second law

A

independent assortment. States that inheritance of one allele does not influence the probability of inheriting an allele for a different trait.

301
Q

point mutation

A

substitution of singular nucleotide for another

302
Q

frameshift mutation

A

moving the three letter transcriptional reading frame

303
Q

silent mutation

A

has no effect

304
Q

missense mutation

A

results in substitution of one amino acid for another

305
Q

nonsense mutation

A

early stop codon

306
Q

deletion mutations

A

large segment of DNA is lost

307
Q

duplication mutation

A

segment of DNA is copied multiple times

308
Q

inversion mutation

A

segment of DNA is reversed

309
Q

insertion mutation

A

segment of DNA is moved from one chromosome to another

310
Q

translocation mutation

A

segment of DNA is swapped with a segment of DNA from another chromosone

311
Q

Genetic leakage

A

flow of genes between species through hybrid offspring

312
Q

genetic drift

A

when composition of gene pool changes as a result of chance

313
Q

founder effect

A

results from bottle necks that suddenly isolate small population leading to inbreeding and increased prevalence of certain homozygous genotypes

314
Q

recombinant frequency

A

likelihood of two alleles being separated during crossing over

315
Q

punctuated equilibrium

A

evolution slow process with intermittent bursts of change

316
Q

Stabilizing selection

A

excludes extremes

317
Q

directional selection

A

moves to one extreme

318
Q

disruptive selection

A

moves to two extremes. Can lead to speciation

319
Q

adaptive radiation

A

rapid emergence of multiple species from common ancestor each of which occupies its own niche

320
Q

divergent evolution

A

two species sharing common ancestor become more different

321
Q

parallel evolution

A

two species sharing common ancestor evolve in similar ways

322
Q

convergent evolution

A

two species not sharing common ancestor evolve in similar ways

Nathan Alaina mcat (6 decks)

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